Overview of Social Psychology and Personality Theories

Social Psychology

Study of how the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Attribution

An explanation for the cause of behavior.

Situational Attribution

External causes (e.g., bad traffic).

Personal Attribution

Internal traits (e.g., laziness, intelligence).

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

We overestimate internal traits and underestimate situational factors in others.

Self-Serving Bias

We credit internal factors for our successes and external factors for our failures.

Attitudes

Feelings shaped by beliefs that influence our behavior toward objects, people, and events.

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

Agreeing to a small request increases likelihood of agreeing to a larger one.

Role-Playing

We adopt attitudes that align with the roles we play (e.g., Zimbardo's Prison Study).

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Tension from holding inconsistent attitudes or actions; we reduce it by changing beliefs or justifying behavior.

Conformity

Adjusting behavior or thinking to match a group standard.

Normative Influence

Wanting to fit in.

Informational Influence

Believing others have accurate information.

Asch's Conformity Experiments

Demonstrated how group pressure can lead to incorrect answers.

Social Facilitation

Performance improves on easy tasks and worsens on hard tasks in front of others.

Group Polarization

Discussion with like-minded people strengthens shared opinions.

Groupthink

Group harmony > rational decision-making.

Altruism

Helping others with no expectation of personal gain.

Bystander Effect

People are less likely to help when others are around (diffusion of responsibility).

Bystander Intervention Model

1. Notice the incident 2. Interpret as emergency 3. Assume responsibility 4. Know how to help 5. Decide to help.

Factors that Increase Helping

Good mood, feeling guilty, seeing others help, similarity to victim, not in a rush, knowing how to help.

Personality

Characteristics: Patterns of behavior, thinking, and feeling.

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Key Theorist: Sigmund Freud

Unconscious Mind

Drives behavior; contains hidden thoughts and memories.

Id

Completely unconscious. Operates on the pleasure principle (immediate satisfaction).

Ego

Logical and rational. Mediates between Id and Superego; operates on the reality principle.

Superego

Moral component; enforces ethical standards and ideals.

Repression

Pushing anxiety-producing thoughts into the unconscious.

Regression

Reverting to earlier behaviors to cope with anxiety.

Displacement

Redirecting feelings to a less threatening target.

Rationalization

Justifying actions to avoid blame.

Projection

Attributing one's own undesirable traits to others.

Reaction Formation

Expressing the opposite of disturbing impulses.

Denial

Refusing to accept painful realities.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Analyzes responses to ambiguous images.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Reveals inner thoughts through storytelling.

Humanistic Perspective

Key Theorists: Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

Inherent Goodness

Focus on self-awareness and free will.

Self-Actualization

Realizing one's potential and true self.

Carl Rogers' Person-Centered Perspective

Importance of genuineness, unconditional positive regard, and empathy.

Real Self

How we perceive ourselves.

Ideal Self

The person we aspire to be.

Congruence

Alignment between real and ideal self leads to psychological health.

Big Five Personality Traits

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.

Self-Esteem

Feelings of self-worth.

Defensive Self-Esteem

Fragile, reliant on external validation.

Secure Self-Esteem

Stable, based on self-acceptance.

Self-Serving Bias

Tendency to perceive oneself favorably; attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Stability of Traits

Some traits remain stable, while others may change over time.

Reciprocal Determinism

Interaction between behavior, personal factors, and environment.

Critical Period

A crucial time early in life when exposure to certain stimuli is necessary for proper skill development (e.g., speech, visual perception).

Normal Development

Skills can develop in a typical home environment without special interventions.

Social Development

Human Bonding

Attachment

A positive emotional bond between a child and a specific individual.

Clear attachment

Typically develops by 6 months of age.

Harry Harlow's Research

Studied infant monkeys to determine the importance of nutrition vs. body contact.

Findings of Harlow's Research

Monkeys without responsive mothers developed abnormal social behaviors.

Ainsworth's Strange Situation

Mary Ainsworth observed children interacting with their mothers to study attachment styles.

Attachment Styles Identified

Secure: Healthy adult relationships, socially competent.

Attachment Styles Identified

Avoidant: Independent, lacks emotional intimacy.

Attachment Styles Identified

Anxious: Sensitive to rejection, may smother others, lacks trust.

Influence of Parenting

Parenting style affects attachment quality; sensitive and responsive parenting can enhance attachment even in difficult children.

Parenting Styles

Parenting styles correlate with children's behavior but are not perfectly correlated.

Authoritarian Parenting

Strict, high demands, low responsiveness.

Permissive Parenting

Lenient, high responsiveness, low demands.

Authoritative Parenting

Balanced, high demands, high responsiveness.

Reflection of Child's Behavior

Parenting style may adapt based on the child's behavior and history.

Adolescence

A stage during teenage development characterized by self-consciousness, overconfidence, and illogical thinking.

Sex (Biological Sex)

Biological status of being male or female.

Chromosomes

XX (female) or XY (male).

SRY Gene

Located on the Y chromosome; prompts development of testes and testosterone production, influencing physical and brain development.

Intersex

Individuals possessing biological sexual characteristics of both sexes.

Gender

Behavioral characteristics associated with being male or female.

Gender Roles

Expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and women.

Development of Gender Roles

Learned and reinforced in early childhood; varies by culture.

Gender Identity

Personal sense of being male, female, neither, or a combination.

Cisgender

Gender identity corresponds with biological sex.

Transgender

Gender identity differs from biological sex.

Transgender Female

Biological male identifying as female.

Transgender Male

Biological female identifying as male.

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation is not a binary category.

Prevalence of Sexual Orientation

Approximately 3-4% of males, 2% of females.

Determinants of Sexual Orientation

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

Brain Structure

Hypothalamus differences.

Genetic Influences

Potential genetic factors.

Gene-Environment Interactions

How genes and environment affect each other.

Prenatal Hormone Exposure

Hormones affecting development before birth.

Chemical Molecules

Impact on genetic expressions.

The "Older Brother Effect"

Increased same-sex attraction rates among right-handed males based on birth order.

1st born male

2% increased same-sex attraction rates.

2nd born male

2.6% increased same-sex attraction rates.

3rd born male

3.5% increased same-sex attraction rates.

Childhood Experiences

Myths surrounding childhood experiences and sexual orientation.

Cross-gender behavior

Children feeling "different" from their gender assigned at birth.