U.S. Foreign Policy and International Security: Midterm Review

What is politics as defined in lecture?

Politics is the use of authority to allocate scarce resources.

What are the two central components of political authority?

Authority and allocation.

How does violence shape political order?

Violence is often necessary for the enforcement of directives in political order.

Give an example of coercion by a legitimate authority.

Police enforcing the law on 6th street at 2 am.

What is the coercion dilemma?

The power to resolve disagreements through physical force presents challenges for communities and leaders.

How does the coercion dilemma influence domestic political order?

It pushes governments to expand state power during war, which can reduce legitimacy and empower opposition.

How did the U.S. address the coercion dilemma after World War II?

The U.S. role of containment legitimized military force, and international organizations constrained its use.

What role did international organizations play in U.S. military power?

They allowed allies to influence and constrain U.S. decisions on military force.

Why was the 2003 invasion of Iraq problematic for U.S. military power?

It lacked international legitimacy and strained alliances, leading to unintended consequences.

How can war change the internal political order of states?

War can strengthen governments, alter territorial composition, and trigger revolutions.

What challenges did Great Britain face after the Seven Years/French & Indian War?

Payment for the war and protection of new territories strained their economy and led to colonial demands for autonomy.

What is war?

An intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups.

How are wars frequently classified?

By interstate wars, civil wars, extra-state wars, internationalized interstate wars, and great power wars.

What are common correlates of war?

Political, economic, geographic, military, and social factors.

What is the fundamental puzzle of war?

Why would states choose war when it is inefficient and costly?

What is the divide the dollar game?

A game illustrating the relationship between bargaining and war.

What are attributes of the bargaining model of war?

Wars are costly, peace settlements should leave parties better off, and bargaining failures can arise from private information.

What is expected utility for war?

A model that helps frame the choice between war and peace based on the values of military outcomes.

What is private information in the context of war?

Information about strategic variables that can lead to overestimation of bargaining leverage.

What are examples of costly signals?

Signals that reveal private information and can foster peace by increasing transparency.

How did private information contribute to the First Persian Gulf War?

Iraq's military build-up and strong stance led to miscalculations and ultimately war.

What misunderstanding led to war between Iraq and Kuwait?

Kuwait didn't make the concessions Iraq needed.

What is the commitment problem in the context of war?

It occurs when one party has strong incentives to break an agreement.

What causes a commitment problem?

A rapid and large shift in the distribution of military or political power.

Which state is more likely to launch a preventive war?

A decreasing state.

How did a commitment problem contribute to the outbreak of World War I?

Shifts in power distribution and new demands for concessions led to preventative wars.

How did a commitment problem contribute to U.S. entry into World War I?

Germany believed the U.S. couldn't commit to staying out of the war.

What commitment problem helped cause World War II in Europe?

Power shifts in German rearmament and demands for territorial concessions.

What defines a great power?

Large population, extensive territory, large economy, and higher military capabilities.

How do great powers structure international politics after great power wars?

They alter the international system's structure and redraw territorial boundaries.

What were the main pillars of the peace settlement after World War I?

National self-determination, support for democracy, and collective security.

What were the main elements of the peace settlement after World War II?

Democracy promotion, nation building, collective security, and new international organizations.

What is polarity in international relations?

The number of great powers at a given time.

What are the differences between unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar power structures?

Unipolarity: one great power dominates; Bipolarity: two great powers dominate; Multipolarity: power is diffused among four or more.

How did bipolarity affect U.S.-Soviet competition during the Cold War?

It stabilized coalitions and prioritized competition between democratic capitalism and authoritarian Communism.

What explains the absence of great power war since the mid-20th century?

Globalization, nuclear deterrence, and U.S. unipolarity have reduced incentives for direct confrontation.

How did the end of the Cold War affect U.S.-Russian relations?

Russia believed that America took advantage of its weakness, while the U.S. and the West gained economically, ideologically, and militarily.

What is an alliance?

A formal agreement between two or more states for mutual support in case of war.

What are some political challenges that alliances face?

Allies can opt not to help in a war, switch sides during a war, and there are large differences in capabilities.

What are arguments in favor of NATO expansion?

Guards against non-traditional security threats, promotes freedom and democracy, integrates militaries for efficiency.

What are arguments against NATO expansion?

Heightens tensions with Russia, imposes costs and risks, dilutes alliance mission, creates divisions, slows demilitarization, complicates consensus-building, weakens security of non-member countries, strains defense budgets, alienates Russia.

Why did Russia intervene in Ukraine in 2014?

To stop Ukraine from aligning with the West and to maintain its sphere of influence.

What were Putin's goals in invading Ukraine in 2022?

Keeping Ukraine out of NATO, reestablishing Russia's influence, recreating a 'Greater Russia.'

Why has the United States supported Ukraine in its war with Russia?

To defend democracy, deter authoritarian regimes, and contain Russian influence.

What were the two major problems Ukraine faced in its conflict with Russia?

American military aid shortage and shortage of soldiers.

What is power transition theory?

An even distribution of capabilities increases the probability of war; declining powers may launch preventive wars against rising powers.

How can power transition theory explain maritime disputes in the South China Sea?

China claims control as a rising power, shifting the international system towards bipolarity/multipolarity.

How has the rise of China and Russia's war in Ukraine led to greater cooperation between China and Russia?

Both seek to counterbalance Western influence and dominance.

Why do states fail to come to a peace settlement in civil wars?

Due to private information and commitment problems that create distrust in peace settlements.

What is the commitment problem in civil wars?

The inability of the side with rising power to commit to a settlement indefinitely.

What factors activate commitment problems and civil war?

Ethnic imbalances, temptation to secede, and the risk of tyranny of the majority.

How can third-party intervention help resolve commitment problems in civil wars?

It can provide guarantees for peace or prolong conflict by shifting local power dynamics.

What is the moral hazard problem?

The tendency for individuals to take more risks when they expect to be rescued from bad outcomes.

What is the Responsibility to Protect doctrine?

It suggests that states have an obligation to provide safe environments for their citizens and that the international community must assist and take action when states fail to protect their populations.

How did the commitment problem contribute to the U.S. Civil War?

It was triggered by western expansion and territorial annexations that threatened the balance of power between free and slave states, leading the South to feel they had to fight to maintain their political power.

What was Lincoln's strategy regarding British intervention in the U.S. Civil War?

Lincoln escalated the war to secure military victories that would deny international recognition and support of the Confederacy by Great Britain.

How have nuclear weapons influenced U.S. foreign policy since 1945?

They shifted the national security strategy from defense to deterrence, as the U.S. cannot effectively defend against incoming missiles.

What is the nuclear revolution?

It refers to changes in warfare due to nuclear weapons, including catastrophic damage in a short time, targeting of noncombatants, and the concept of mutually assured destruction.

What is deterrence?

It is the use of threats to prevent harmful behavior by threatening retaliation rather than taking direct action.

What are the types of deterrence?

General deterrence, immediate deterrence, and extended deterrence.

What is second strike capability?

The ability to survive a first nuclear attack and launch a devastating counterattack.

What is mutually assured destruction (MAD)?

A policy ensuring that both states in a nuclear conflict will sustain damages sufficient to negate any advantages from a first strike.

How might nuclear weapons make war less likely?

Due to MAD, nuclear powers have strong incentives to avoid military conflict to prevent mutual destruction.

What is the problem of credibility in nuclear deterrence?

It is the difficulty of making threats credible when following through would lead to negative consequences for both the issuer and the receiver.

What is extended deterrence?

The ability of U.S. military forces to deter attacks on allies, affecting the credibility of nuclear deterrent threats.

How is credibility based on capabilities and resolve?

A state must have the proper capabilities and demonstrate the resolve to carry out threats for them to be credible.

How can a state demonstrate credibility in nuclear deterrence?

Through strategies such as brinkmanship, tripwire forces, risky actions just short of conflict, and public pronouncements.

How might national missile defense influence nuclear deterrence stability?

It may encourage riskier behavior, strain relations, and increase enemy aggression due to perceived insurance against attacks.

What is nuclear proliferation?

The act of non-nuclear states acquiring nuclear weapons, often for security, domestic politics, or international norms.

Why do states acquire nuclear weapons?

For security, domestic politics, and adherence to international norms.

Why do nuclear states want to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons?

To mitigate risks of accidents, regional arms races, and instability that could lead to nuclear weapons falling into the hands of terrorist groups.