Social Psychology and Personality Flashcards (Textbook)

Unit 4 Terminology - Ap Psych

Personality Psychology

The scientific study of personality and its development, structure, traits, processes, variations, and disordered forms (personality disorders).

Confirmation Bias

Belief Preservation

Ethnocentrism

Outgroup homogeneity Bias

Implicit Attitudes

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Person Perception

How we form impressions of ourselves and others, including attributions of behavior.

Attribution Theory

The theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (situational attribution) or the person’s stable, enduring traits (dispositional attribution).

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

The tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

Actor-observer Bias

The tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes.

*This contributes to the fundamental attribution error.

Prejudice

An unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. _____ generally involves negative emotions, stereotyped beliefs, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

Feeling or attitude.

Stereotype

A generalized (sometime accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

Thought or belief.

Discrimination

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

_____ is a behavior.

Just-world Phenomenon

The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Social Identity

The “we” aspect of out self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.

Ingroup

People with whom we share a common identity.

Outgroup

Those perceived as different or apart from our group.

Ingroup Bias

The tendency to favor our own group.

Scapegoat Theory

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

Other-race Effect

The tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.

Attitudes

Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

A learned tendency to respond positively or negatively toward a person, group, object, or idea.

Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Role

A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of out thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent.

Persuasion

Changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions.

Peripheral Route Persuasion

Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.

Central Route Persuasion

Occurs when interested people’s thinking is influenced by considering evidence and arguments.

Norms

A society’s understood rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior in individual and social situations.

Conformity

Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Normative Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Informational Social Influence

Influence resulting from a person’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.

Obedience

Complying with an order or a command.

Social Facilitation

In the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks.

Social Loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Group Polarization

The enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

Groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from on generation to the next.

Tight Culture

A place with clearly defined and reliably imposed norms.

Loose Culture

A place with flexible and informal norms.

Aggression

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

Frustration-aggression Principle

The principle that frustration creates anger, which can generate aggression.

Social Script

A culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

Mere Exposure Effect

The tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them.

Passionate Love

An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a romantic relationship.

Companionate Love

The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

Equity

A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.

Self-disclosure

The act of revealing intimate aspects of ourselves to others.

Altruism

Unselfish regard for the welfare for others.

Bystander Effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

Social Exchange Theory

The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Reciprocity Norm

An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

Social-responsibility Norm

An expectation that people will help those needing their help.

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas,

Social Trap

A situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Mirror-image Perceptions

Mutual view often held by conflicting parties, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

A belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

Superordinate Goals

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction; a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.

Personality

An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

Psychodynamic Theories

Theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious mind and the importance of childhood experiences.

Psychoanalysis

Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.

Unconscious

According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

Free Association

In Psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.

Id

A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The ___ operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

Ego

The partly conscious “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, the superego, and reality. The ___ operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

Superego

The partly conscious part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

Defense Mechanisms

In psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.

Regression

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Collective Unconscious

Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from out species’ history.

Terror-management Theory

A theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective test in which people express their inner feeling and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

Projective Test

A personality test, such as TAT or Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection pf one’s inner dynamics and explore the preconscious and unconscious mind.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

A projective test designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing how they interpret 10 inkblots.

Humanistic Theories

Theories that view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s levels of human needs, beginning at the base with psychological needs. Often visualized as a pyramid, with needs nearer the base taking priority until they are satisfied.

Self-actualization

According to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.

Self-transcendence

According to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose, beyond the self.

Unconditional Positive Regard

A caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help people develop self-awareness and self-acceptance. (Also known as unconditional regard.)

Self-concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”

Trait

A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.

Personality Inventory

A questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

The most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

Empirically Derived Test

A test (such as the MMPI) created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups.

Big Five Factors

Five traits—openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism—that describe personality. (Also called the five-factor model.)

Social-cognitive Perspective

A view of behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

Behavioral Approach

Focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development.

Reciprocal Determination

The interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.

Self

In modern psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Spotlight Effect

Overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).

Self-esteem

Our feelings of high or low self-worth.

Self-efficacy

Our sense of competence and effectiveness.

Self-serving Bias

A readiness to perceive ourselves favorably.

Narcissism

Excessive self-love and self-absorption.

Individualism

A cultural pattern that emphasizes people’s own goals over group goals and defines identity mainly in terms of unique personal attributes.

Collectivism

A cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups (often one’s extended family or work group).

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs bahavior.

Instinct

A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.

Psychological Need

A basic bodily requirement.