EDUC 104 W6 - W10 Concepts

normalization

Principle that people with ID should live a lifestyle as culturally typical as possible, including the right to make their own choices.

deinstitutionalization

Movement of individuals with disabilities out of large institutions and into community-based living settings.

standard deviation (SD)

Statistical measure of how far a score varies from the mean; ID is roughly 2 SD below the mean on IQ tests.

adaptive behavior

Conceptual, social, and practical skills people use to function in everyday life.

level of support

Amount/intensity of help a person needs (intermittent, limited, extensive, pervasive); basis of modern ID classification.

external locus of control

Belief that outcomes are controlled by outside forces rather than one's own actions.

learned helplessness

Expectation of failure that causes a person to stop trying even when success is possible.

outer-directedness

Reliance on external cues or other people rather than one's own judgment to solve problems.

generalizing (generalization)

Difficulty applying a skill learned in one setting to new settings or situations.

etiology

The cause or origin of a condition.

prenatal

Occurring before birth.

perinatal

Occurring around the time of birth.

postnatal

Occurring after birth.

Down syndrome

Chromosomal disorder (usually trisomy 21) causing intellectual disability and distinct physical features.

chorionic villus sampling (CVS)

Prenatal test sampling placental tissue to detect genetic/chromosomal abnormalities; done earlier than amniocentesis.

amniocentesis

Prenatal test sampling amniotic fluid to detect chromosomal/genetic abnormalities.

therapeutic abortion

Termination of a pregnancy for medical reasons, including detected fetal abnormalities.

Fragile X syndrome

Inherited X-linked condition; the most common inherited cause of intellectual disability.

phenylketonuria (PKU)

Inherited metabolic disorder; inability to process phenylalanine causes ID if untreated by diet.

galactosemia

Inherited metabolic disorder; inability to process galactose (milk sugar) can cause ID if untreated.

rubella

German measles; if contracted by a pregnant mother it can cause ID and other birth defects.

syphilis

Maternal STI that can cross the placenta and cause intellectual disability.

acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)

Caused by HIV; can be transmitted to the fetus and result in developmental disabilities.

Rh incompatibility

Blood mismatch (Rh- mother, Rh+ baby) that can damage the fetus and cause ID.

toxoplasmosis

Infection (from raw meat or cat feces) that, contracted in pregnancy, can harm the fetus.

cytomegalovirus (CMV)

Common viral infection that, during pregnancy, can cause ID and other impairments.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

Birth defects and intellectual disability caused by prenatal alcohol exposure.

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

Umbrella term for the full range of effects from prenatal alcohol exposure.

partial fetal alcohol syndrome (pFAS)

Diagnosis showing some but not all features of full FAS.

anencephaly

Congenital absence of major portions of the brain and skull.

microcephaly

Abnormally small head and brain, associated with intellectual disability.

hydrocephalus

Excess cerebrospinal fluid in the brain that can cause pressure and brain damage.

low birth weight

Birth weight under about 5.5 lbs; a risk factor for developmental problems.

premature births

Birth before 37 weeks gestation; a risk factor for disabilities.

anoxia

Total lack of oxygen, which can cause brain damage.

hypoxia

Reduced or insufficient oxygen supply, which can cause brain damage.

birth trauma

Physical injury to the infant during the birth process.

breech presentation

Baby positioned feet or buttocks first, increasing birth complications.

precipitous birth

Extremely rapid labor and delivery that can injure the infant.

lead poisoning

Toxic lead exposure causing brain damage and intellectual disability.

Meningitis

Inflammation of the membranes around the brain/spinal cord that can cause ID.

encephalitis

Inflammation of the brain that can result in intellectual disability.

functional curriculum

Curriculum teaching practical skills needed for daily living now and in the future.

functional academics

Academic skills (reading, math) taught for real-life application rather than abstract knowledge.

community-based instruction

Teaching skills in natural, real-world settings rather than simulated classroom environments.

task analysis

Breaking a complex skill into smaller, sequential, teachable steps.

cooperative learning

Instructional approach where students work together in small groups toward a shared goal.

scaffolding

Providing temporary support that is gradually removed as the student becomes independent.

augmentative and alternative communication (AAC)

Tools and methods that supplement or replace speech for communication.

infant stimulation

Early sensory and developmental activities to promote a young child's development.

environmentally at risk

Children whose environment (e.g., poverty, poor caregiving) threatens normal development.

established risk

Children with a diagnosed condition (e.g., Down syndrome) with a known developmental impact.

biologically at risk

Children with a biological history (e.g., prematurity) that raises the chance of developmental delay.

family-centered early intervention

Early intervention approach treating the family as the central unit and decision-maker.

sheltered workshop

Segregated work setting where adults with disabilities do tasks, often for low pay, apart from the general workforce.

supported competitive employment

Working an integrated community job for competitive wages with ongoing support.

job coach

Specialist who provides on-site training and support to a worker with a disability.

self-determination

Acting as the primary causal agent in one's own life; making one's own choices and decisions.

self-advocacy

Speaking up for and asserting one's own rights, needs, and interests.

Q (W6): How has the definition of ID changed over the decades?

Shifted from a fixed IQ-based trait, to including adaptive behavior, to today's model based on the interaction of person, environment, and needed supports.

Q (W6): Three key elements of the 1992 AAIDD definition and how interrelated?

Subaverage intellectual functioning, limitations in adaptive behavior, and onset before age 18; all three must co-occur, with supports matched to functioning in the environment.

Q (W6): Why is intelligence assessment controversial?

Intelligence is a theoretical construct inferred only from tests that sample limited skills; tests can be culturally biased and a single score can misclassify people.

Q (W6): What is adaptive behavior and how is it assessed?

Conceptual, social, and practical everyday-life skills; assessed mainly through standardized adaptive behavior scales plus caregiver interviews and observation.

Q (W6): How have society's views of ID changed over the centuries?

From fear, superstition, extermination, and segregation toward normalization, deinstitutionalization, and inclusion.

Q (W6): What factors reduced the numbers classified as ID?

Stricter definitions emphasizing adaptive behavior, concern over test bias and overrepresentation, and the shift to a supports-based model.

Q (W6): List seven possible causes of ID with an example of each.

Chromosomal (Down syndrome); metabolic/genetic (PKU); prenatal infection (rubella); prenatal toxin (FAS); perinatal (anoxia at birth); postnatal infection (meningitis); environmental toxin (lead poisoning).

Q (W6): How do learned helplessness, outer-directedness, and generalizing affect learning?

Learned helplessness makes students expect failure and stop trying; outer-directedness makes them rely on others instead of self problem-solving; poor generalizing means skills do not transfer to new settings.

Q (W6): Define functional academics and relate to community-based instruction.

Functional academics are academic skills taught for practical daily use; community-based instruction teaches them in real settings, so the two pair to build usable, real-world competence.

Q (W6): What is cooperative learning and why is it popular?

Students work in small mixed-ability groups toward a shared goal; popular because it builds social skills, peer support, and inclusion while promoting learning.

Q (W6): Steps for effective scaffolding.

Assess current level, model the skill, give guided support and prompts, gradually reduce support as competence grows, then fade to independent performance.

Q (W6): How can assistive technology benefit individuals with ID?

Supports communication, daily living, learning, and independence (e.g., AAC, prompting devices), increasing participation and self-reliance.

Q (W6): How has family-centered early intervention influenced programming?

Made families central decision-makers and partners, with services built around family priorities, routines, and the child's natural environment.

Q (W6): Distinguish a sheltered workshop from supported competitive employment.

A sheltered workshop is segregated, often low-pay work apart from the community; supported competitive employment is an integrated community job at competitive wages with ongoing support.

discrepancy

A significant gap between a student's ability/potential (IQ) and their actual academic achievement.

response to intervention (RTI)

Process of identifying LD by how a student responds to increasingly intensive, research-based interventions.

exclusionary clause

Provision that an LD cannot be due primarily to sensory, intellectual, or emotional problems, or environmental/cultural/economic disadvantage.

familiality studies

Research examining whether a trait or disability runs in families.

heritability studies

Research (often twin studies) estimating the genetic contribution to a trait.

dyslexia

A reading disability; the most common form of learning disability.

phonological awareness

Awareness of the sound structure of spoken language (syllables, rhymes, sounds).

phonemic awareness

Ability to hear and manipulate individual sounds in words; a subset of phonological awareness.

phonemes

The smallest units of sound in a language.

short-term memory

Temporary storage of a small amount of information for a brief time.

working memory

System for holding and actively manipulating information while completing a task.

metacognition

Awareness and regulation of one's own thinking and learning processes.

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Condition marked by inattention, impulsivity, and/or hyperactivity; frequently co-occurs with LD.

progress monitoring

Frequent measurement of student performance to track growth and guide instruction.

norm-referenced assessments

Tests comparing a student's performance to a normative peer group.

criterion-referenced assessments

Tests measuring performance against a fixed mastery standard rather than against peers.

curriculum-based measurement (CBM)

A criterion-referenced method of frequently measuring progress on curriculum content.

authentic assessment

Evaluation using real-world tasks and meaningful performance rather than only traditional tests.

self-instruction

Cognitive strategy where students talk themselves through the steps of a task.

mnemonic strategies

Memory aids (acronyms, keywords) that help recall information.

learning strategies

Techniques that teach students how to learn and actively engage in the learning process.

summary of performance (SOP)

Document summarizing a student's academic/functional performance and recommendations at high school exit.

Q (W7): Three reasons defining LD has been challenging.

The population is highly heterogeneous, the ability-achievement discrepancy is hard to measure reliably, and LD overlaps with and must be excluded from other conditions.

Q (W7): Historical phases of the LD field and their contributions.

Foundation phase (brain research linking learning problems to neurology), transition phase (translating findings into assessment/clinical practice), and integration phase (school programs and IDEA recognition).

Q (W7): List three possible causes of LD with an example of each.

CNS injury/damage (brain trauma), heredity (LD running in families), and environmental factors (poor nutrition or toxin exposure).

Q (W7): Five characteristics of LD and which is most debilitating.

Reading deficits (dyslexia), math difficulties, attention problems, memory deficits, poor metacognition; reading is often most debilitating because it underlies most academic learning (opinion).

Q (W7): What is RTI and its typical process?

A multi-tiered process: Tier 1 quality general instruction with screening, Tier 2 targeted small-group intervention with progress monitoring, Tier 3 intensive individualized intervention, with referral if the student fails to respond.