General Biology Chapters 1-3 Review

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering basic principles of biological science, chemical foundations, water properties, and macromolecular structures.

Emergent Properties

Novel properties that result from the complex interaction of components in a hierarchical system and cannot be deduced solely by examining the individual parts.

Deductive Reasoning

A form of logical thinking that uses general principles to make specific predictions.

Inductive Reasoning

A form of logical thinking that uses specific observations to construct general scientific conclusions.

Hypothesis

A proposed, testable explanation for an observation that allows for predictions to be made and refined with new data.

Reductionism

A philosophical approach to science that breaks down a complex biological system or process into its simpler individual parts.

Systems Biology

A research approach focused on emergent properties that cannot be understood solely by looking at simpler individual parts.

Scientific Theory

A broad, interconnected body of concepts supported by extensive experimental evidence and scientific reasoning expressing ideas of which scientists are most certain.

Natural Selection

The mechanism proposed by Charles Darwin for evolution, where organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Homologous Structures

Anatomical structures that share the same evolutionary origin but may now differ in structure and function, such as vertebrate forelimbs.

Analogous Structures

Anatomical structures of different evolutionary origins that are used for the same purpose, such as the wings of birds and butterflies.

Cell Theory

The foundational biological principle stating that all organisms are composed of cells, cells are life's basic units, and all cells arise from preexisting cells.

Atomic Number

The number of protons in an atom, which equals the number of electrons in a neutral atom and uniquely identifies a chemical element.

Atomic Mass

The sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom, where each proton and neutron has a mass of approximately $1\,\text{Dalton}$.

Isotope

Atoms of a single element that possess the same number of protons but differ in their number of neutrons.

Cation

An ion with a net positive charge, formed when an atom loses one or more electrons.

Anion

An ion with a net negative charge, formed when an atom gains one or more electrons.

Oxidation

A chemical process during a reaction where an atom or molecule loses an electron.

Reduction

A chemical process during a reaction where an atom or molecule gains an electron.

Valence Electrons

The electrons located in the outermost energy level of an atom, which dictate its chemical behavior.

Octet Rule

The rule stating that atoms tend to interact in ways that establish completely full outer energy levels containing $8$ electrons.

Electronegativity

An atom's structural affinity or pull for shared electrons within a chemical bond.

Nonpolar Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed by the equal sharing of electrons between atoms.

Polar Covalent Bond

A chemical bond formed by the unequal sharing of electrons due to differences in electronegativity.

Hydrogen Bond

A weak chemical association formed between the partially negative oxygen atom ($\delta^-$) and partially positive hydrogen atom ($\delta^+$) of adjacent water molecules.

Cohesion

The property of water molecules sticking to other water molecules by hydrogen bonding.

Adhesion

The property of water molecules sticking to other polar molecules by hydrogen bonding.

Specific Heat

The amount of energy required to change the temperature of a substance; water possesses a high specific heat.

Hydrophilic

Refers to 'water-loving' polar or charged molecules that readily interact with or dissolve in water.

Hydrophobic

Refers to 'water-fearing' nonpolar molecules that aggregate together and stay separate from water.

pH

The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution, expressed mathematically as $\text{pH} = -\log[\text{H}^+]$.

Buffer

A substance that resists changes in $\text{pH}$ by absorbing hydrogen ions ($\text{H}^+$) when an acid is added and releasing them when a base is added.

Polymer

A large macromolecule built by joining small, similar chemical subunits known as monomers.

Dehydration Synthesis

A chemical reaction that links monomers together into polymers through the removal of a water molecule ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$).

Hydrolysis

A chemical reaction that breaks down polymers into individual monomers through the addition of a water molecule ($\text{H}_2\text{O}$).

Structural Isomer

Molecules that share the same molecular formula but differ in the covalent arrangement of their carbon skeleton, such as glucose and fructose.

Stereoisomer

Molecules with the same molecular formula and identical bonds that differ in the spatial arrangement of their functional groups, such as glucose and galactose.

Phosphodiester Bond

The covalent bond that connects adjacent nucleotides in a nucleic acid polymer by linking a phosphate group to a sugar.

Peptide Bond

The covalent bond that links individual amino acids together via dehydration synthesis to form a polypeptide.

Primary Structure

The specific linear sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

Secondary Structure

Regular spatial patterns formed by hydrogen bonds in the polypeptide backbone, such as the $\alpha$-helix or $\beta$-pleated sheet.

Tertiary Structure

The final three-dimensional folded shape of a single globular polypeptide chain.

Quaternary Structure

The structural arrangement formed when two or more individual polypeptide chains function together as subunits of a single protein.

Chaperone Proteins

Specialized proteins that assist newly synthesized proteins in folding correctly into their functional shapes.

Denaturation

The process by which a protein loses its functional shape and structure due to changes in $\text{pH}$, temperature, or ionic concentration.

Triglyceride

A lipid molecule composed of one glycerol molecule bonded to three fatty acid chains.

Saturated Fatty Acid

A fatty acid chain with no double bonds between carbon atoms, resulting in a higher melting point and typical animal origin.

Unsaturated Fatty Acid

A fatty acid chain containing one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, leading to a lower melting point and typical plant origin.

Phospholipid Bilayer

A two-layered membrane structure where hydrophilic phosphate heads face outward towards water and hydrophobic fatty acid tails point inward.