NYSTCE Childhood Multisubject English Review

intrinsic factors of language acquisition

cognitive processing cababilities, memory span, and psychological hearing health

extrinsic factors of language acquisition

environmental exposure to rich vocabulary, socioeconomic background, and home literacy habits and language experiences

folktales

old stories passed down by word of mouth that feature flat characters and teach a simple community lesson

legends

stories based on real people/events that grow larger and grander over time

fables

short tales with animal characters that end with a clear, direct moral lesson

myths

sacred tales explaining how the world works that feature gods, heroes, and supernatural events

fantasy

made-up worlds with magic and imaginary creatures

realistic fiction

made-up stories set in the real world

drama

written as a script for actors to perform on stage

structure: divided into acts/scenes instead of chapters

dialogue: characters speak to each other to drive the plot

stage directions: notes in the text tell actors how to move/feel

poetry

uses line breaks and stanzas instead of standard paragraphs

sound: focuses heavily on rhythm, meter, and rhyme

concentration: uses fewer words to pack a strong emotional punch

visuals: uses white space on the page to guide reading pace

narrative arc

plot structure that includes exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution

exposition

start and setting of a story

rising action

events begin and problems start

climax

big turning point

falling action

results play out

resolution

final outcome (also called denouement)

characterization

how an author builds a person/creature, including direct statements and indirect clues (dialogue/actions)

figuartive language

words used beyond their literal meaning (ex. metaphor, simile, personification)

point of view

lens of the narrator

first person = “I”

second person = “you”

third person = “he/she”

expository text

informs, describes, or explains a topic with facts and statistics

structures: compare/contrast and description

example: history textbook

explanatory text

clarifies a process/concept so it’s easy to understand

structures: cause/effect and sequential steps

example: water cycle guide

argumentative text

convinces the reader to accept a specific point of view or take an action

structures: problem/solution and claim/evidence

example: political speech

biographical text

documents the real-life events and impact of a specific person

structures: chronological sequencing and cause/effect

example: autobiography

academic English

formal, structured style of language that helps people share clear facts in schools/jobs

vernacular English

everyday, informal language of a local group or culture that helps people connect, share feelings, and talk easily

academic English vs vernacular English

standard English rules apply to formal academic settings, but you must respect and leverage varieties of vernacular English to create a culturally-responsive, inclusive environment

respecting both builds trust and helps students feel safe, so…

• teach the context (when to use formal/casual speech)

• honor home languages (treat local speech as a valid tool)

• listen closely (value what is said before fixing it)

• mix styles (use local stories to teach big ideas)

phonological awareness

the umbrella ability to hear and manipulate larger parts of spoken language

examples: sentences, words, syllables, onsets, and rimes

✱requires NO text or letters — all auditory/oral

developmental continuum for phonological awareness

1. word awareness (counting words in a spoken sentence)

2. syllable awareness (word parts from blending/segmenting)

3. onset-rime (separating word beginnings and endings)

onset

initial consonant/blend of one syllable

example: /st/ in /st/+/ick/ = stick

rime

vowel-end of one syllable

example: /ick/ in /st/+/ick/ = stick

if a 1st-3rd grader struggles with decoding, the root cause is frequently…

weak phonological processing

phonemic awareness

a narrow subskill under phonological awareness focusing exclusively on individual oral sounds (PHONEMES)

the developmental continuum for phonemic awareness

4. phoneme isolation (identify beginning, middle, end sounds)

• ex. /p/ is the first sound in pan

5. phoneme blending (join isolated sounds to form a word)

• ex. blend /p/ /a/ /n/ to form pan

6. phoneme segmentation (breaking spoken word down to discrete sounds)

• ex. segment pan into /p/ /a/ /n/

phonics word recognition

explicit phonics instruction relies on teaching spelling patterns to help students predict vowel sounds and unpack multisyllabic words

6 syllable types

C - closed

L - consonant-LE

O - open

V - vowel team
E - vowel-consonant-E

R - R-controlled

closed syllable

ends in a consonant, vowel is short

examples: mat, cat, bed, rab-bit

consonant-LE syllable

end of multi-syllable words, combines consonant with -le sequence

examples: pud-dle, ta-ble, sim-ple

open syllable

ends in a vowel, vowel is long

examples: go, me, ti-ger, ba-con

vowel team syllable

two vowels together make one sound (digraphs/diphthongs)

examples: rain, feet, boat, oil, cloud

vowel-consonant-E syllable

silent e makes first vowel long

examples: bake, stripe, hike, cup-cake

R-controlled syllable

r follows a vowel and changes the sound

examples: farm, car, her, bird, lar-ger

reading fluency components

fluency requires automated decoding so cognitive space is freed up for processing meaning

1. accuracy

2. rate

3. automaticity

4. prosody

accuracy

the percentage of text read completely correctly

rate

the speed at which text is decoded (words correct per minute)

prosody

reading text with natural conversational expression, appropriate vocal phrasing, and precise punctuation signals

key instructional fluency strategies and interventions

repeated oral reading

• have students read the same text multiple times with guidance to build automaticity

controlled/decodable text

• using reading materials that match the phonics patterns the student has already been explicitly taught

choral/partner reading

• reading aloud together in a group or taking turns reading with a peer to build confidence and pacing

Elkonin boxes (sound boxes)

students push a token into a box for every spoken sound they hear in a word

three tiers of vocabulary instruction

tier 1 = everyday words

tier 2 = academic vocabulary

tier 3 = domain-specific words

tier 1 vocabulary

basic conversational words that rarely require explicit classroom instruction

examples: happy, clock, run

tier 2 vocabulary

high-utility, mature words that appear across multiple content areas

examples: analyze, contrast, predict, synthesis

tier 3 vocabulary

technical words that are striuctly localized to a specific discipline or field of study

examples: photosynthesis, parabola, amendment

instructional strategies for vocabulary development

context clues

• teaching students to use surrounding sentences to guess a word’s meaning

semantic maps

• graphic organizers that visually connect a new words to related words/concepts

key pillars of text comprehension

background knowledge

• pre-teaching concepts or vocabulary before starting a text so students can make connections

scaffolding

• providing temporary support and slowly removing it as students get better

• ex. graphic organizers or sentence starters

ultimate goal of reading

comprehension (requires active thinking before, during, and after reading a text)

text comprehension analysis tools

see packet 3

instructional strategies for text comprehension

metacognitive strategies

• teaching students to monitor their own understanding

reciprocal teaching

• a dialogue where teachers and students take turns leading discussions with predict, question, clarify, summarize

graphic organizers

• story maps, venn diagrams, and flow charts organize details

the writing process stages

1. prewriting: brainstorming ideas, selecting topics, and outlining text structures

2. drafting: capturing thoughts roughly on paper without considering mechanics

3. revising: rearranging, expanding, or modifying ideas, clarity, and paragraph structure

4. editing: reviewing text to correct spelling, grammar, punctuation, and capitalization

5. publishing: preparing final polished copy for formatting and sharing

if the student struggles with…

substituting spoken sounds or blending words aloud without text

their underlying deficit, and your ideal intervention strategy is…

phonemic awareness

use Elkonin sound boxes and oral sound manipulation games

if the student struggles with…

guessing words based on the first letter or getting stuck on syllable breaks

their underlying deficit, and your ideal intervention strategy is…

phonics/decoding

teach explicit syllable-division rules and sound-spelling correspondences

if the student struggles with…

reading accurately but slowly, choppy phrasing, ignoring periods

their underlying deficit, and your ideal intervention strategy is…

fluency (automaticity/prosody)

implement timed repeated readings or modeled choral reading

if the student struggles with…

sounding out every word perfectly but failing to retell the main plot

their underlying deficit, and your ideal intervention strategy is…

comprehension or vocabulary

teach tier 2 vocabulary words, pre-teach background concepts, or practice summarizing strategies

standard diagnostic reading levels

1. independent reading level

2. instructional reading level

3. frustration reading level

independent reading level

• word recognition accuracy lands between 95-100%

• material is suitable for independent enjoyment without aid

instructional reading level

• word recognition accuracy lands between 90-94%

• this represents the ideal “zone of proximal development” for structured small-group teacher guidance

frustration reading level

• word recognition accuracy drops below 90%

• the text is too demanding, causing a breakdown in comprehension and student frustration

decoding

the cognitive process of translating written graphemes into spoken sounds to read a word

• first recognizing the sounds individual letters and letter groups make, and then blending the sounds to read the word

example: Looking at map, recognizing that m makes /m/, a makes /æ/, and p makes /p/, then blending them to say "map".

encoding

the process of translating spoken sounds into written graphemes to spell a word correctly

grapheme

the smallest written unit of language that represents a sound, could be a single letter or group of letters

examples: t, ch, sh, the letter a in cat

miscue analysis

an analytical assessment tool used during running records to record, categorize, and evaluate a reader’s oral reading errors based on semantic, syntactic, or visual cues

orthography

the conventional spelling system and structural method of representing sounds via written symbols in a given language

phoneme

the absolute smallest unit of sound in a spoken language that distinguishes one word from another

example: changing the first sound in cat (/k/) to the sound (/h/) creates hat

semantics

the linguistic study of meaning within language, including individual words, phrases, and text relationships

syntax

the specific structural rules governing sentence construction, phrase arrangement, and grammatical word order

automaticity

the fast, accurate, and effortless recognition of words without conscious thought

phonics vs phonemic awareness

phonemic awareness is ORAL

• it deals with sound only

• students use ears, not eyes

• activities include blending spoken sounds or counting sounds

phonics is PRINT

• it deals with letters and written symbols

• students use eyes and hands to connect letters to sounds

✱this connection (decoding) is called the alphabetic principle

phonics instruction must be _________ and __________

explicit (directly taught) and systematic (taught in a specific, logical order)

developmental progression of word patterns

1. CVC words

2. consonant blends

3. consonant digraphs

4. vowel teams + diphthongs

5. multisyllabic words

CVC words

consonant-vowel-consonant words with short vowels

examples: cat, sit, rug

consonant blends

2+ consonants together where each sound is still heard

examples: stop, flip, bend

consonant digraphs

2 consonants that combine to make one brand new sound

examples: ship, chip, that, what

vowel teams + diphtongs

2 vowels working together to make one sound or a sliding sound

examples:

one sound = boat

sliding sound = coin, shout

multisyllabic words

longer words broken down by syllable rules or meaning units

examples: pen-cil, nap-kin, sun-set

choose the best text for a struggling reader in need of phonic practice

decodable texts

• books that only use phonics rules the student has learned

• ex. “The fat cat sat on the mat.”

choose the best text for a struggling reader in need of confidence or language comprehension, NOT phonics practice

predictable/leveled texts

• books with repetitive phrases and heavy picture clues

• ex. “I see a brown bear.” (with a picture of a bear)

• builds early reading confidence, teaches context clues, or assesses language comprehension

✱risk: forces students to look at pictures and guess words instead of sounding them out

phonics

a method of teaching people to read and write by matching letters (graphemes) to their spoken sounds (phonemes)

advanced word analysis (morphemic analysis)

for upper childhood grades 3-6, phonics shifts into breaking words apart by meaning units

• morpheme

• structural analysis

• inflectional endings

morpheme

smallest unit of meaning in a language

examples: the word cat or the prefix un-

structural analysis

teaching students to decode unfamiliar words by looking for roots and affixes

example: preheating

prefix = pre- (before)

root = -heat-

suffix = -ing (ongoing action)

heating something before use

inflectional endings

suffixes that change grammatical tense or number but keep the core meaning the same

examples: walked, cats, playing

affixes

a small group of letters added to the root or base of a word (prefixes and sufixes)

genres most important for children becoming readers in grades K, 1, and 2

alphabet books, wordless picture books, easy-to-read books

context

by considering the other words in a story, a student can determine missing words or their meaning

structuring language arts curriculum and instruction

• use written curriculum provided by the district as instructional foundation

• with time/creativity, teachers can bring these concepts to life with various material types and engaging methods

• coordinate instruction with teachers of other subjects

letter-sound correspondence

relationship between a spoken sounds or group of sounds and the letters conventionally used in English to write them

children stages of writing development

1. role-play writing (scribbling) = 2-3 years old

2. experimental writing = 3-4 years old

3. early writing (phonetic/transitional) = 4-7 years old

4. conventional writing = 6-8+ years old

role-play writing (scribbling) stage

• random or controlled scribbles, mock letters, and drawing

• children use whole-body movements or fine-motor grasps to make marks

✱ “read” stories/messages back from drawings, realize print holds meaning

2-3 years

experimental writing stage

• letter-like forms, strings of random mock letters, separated shapes

• begin to separate drawing from writing and understand driectionality

✱ recognize distinct symbols make up words

3-4 years

early writing (phonetic/transitional) stage

• invented spelling, beginning letter-sound matching, and writing initial consonants or prominant sound for words (ex. d- for dog)

✱ actively connect phonics rules to written text, attempting to sound out words independently

4-7 years

conventional writing stage

• standard dictionary spelling, appropriate punctuation, correct capital/lowercase use, and structured sentence construction

• writing becomes readable to others without needing the child to translate

✱ applying grammar/mechanics reliably

6-8+ years

if a child appears dealyed in speech development…

use in-depth evaluations and early intervention to assist language delays