Geography - Development Dynamics

What is GNI per capita? What are the strengths of using this? What are weaknesses of using this

The total amount of money a country makes divided by its population Good indicator of economy, and counties with a high GNI per capita are also likely to have good education, healthcare and standard of living Does not account for people who work in the informal sector or for the wealth gap, easily skewed by very high earners

What is the HDI? Strengths? Weaknesses?

A scale from 0 to 1 measuring expected years of schooling, mean years of schooling, life expectancy, and GNI per capita Combines multiple factors, giving a more rounded view, produced by the UN so data is reliable Does not include things such as religious tolerance, environmental quality, and does not account for the wealth gap or the fact that not everyone will have the same access to education and healthcare

What is the definition of death rate?

The number of deaths per 1000 people per year

What is the definition of birth rate?

The number of live births per 1000 people per year

What is the definition of infant mortality?

The number of children of 1000 live births who die before their first birthday

What does HDI measure?

Life expectancy, expected years of schooling, mean years of schooling, GNI per capita

What is development?

Any improvement in standard of living of people in a country

What is standard of living?

The wealth, comfort, material goods and necessities available to a certain group of people in a certain location

What is quality of life?

The wellbeing (health and happiness) of a person or group of people

What is a composite indicator

An indicator that combines two or more data sources into a single measure

What is a social indicator?

An indicator which focuses on people, measuring access to nutrition, healthcare and education for example

What is an economic indicator?

An indicator which focuses on money, measuring wealth and how it is generated

Benefits and drawbacks of birth rate as an indicator

Indicator of good healthcare, women’s rights, Data is available for most countries so comparisons can be made Easily impacted by other factors like disease

Benefits and drawbacks of death rate as an indicator

Indicator of healthcare and political situation Data is available for most countries so comparisons can be made Easily impacted by other factors like disease, aging population

Benefits of infant mortality as an indicator

Good indicator of women’s rights, healthcare, safety Not easily impacted by other factors Data is available for most countries so comparisons can be made

What is the Corruption Perception index? Why is corruption an indicator for development?

Score which grades countries’ governments from corrupt (0) to clean (100) Helpful as a country with a corrupt government may not develop as fast as it otherwise would as the money is not being used to better the lives of its citizens

What is the Gini coefficient? What is its disadvantage?

A measure of economic inequality. Countries are given a score between 0 and 1 , where 0 means the wreath is shared perfectly equally and 1 means 1 person has all the wealth. A high value means more inequality The data is often unavailable for most countries

What is maternal mortality

The number of registered maternal deaths due to birth or pregnancy related complication per 100,000 registered births

What is demographic data

All data linked to a population, like birth rate or death rate

What is population structure

Composition of a country’s population by age and gender, usually collected in a census

Describe a developing population pyramid

Wide base and concave sides, narrows rapidly with each bar. Numbers decrease to a sharp point.

Explain a developing population pyramid

Wide base shows a high fertility and birth rate, as there is no contraception used, and people may have children to help with the family’s work. This means they also have many children to compensate for the expected deaths. Death rates, including infant and maternal mortality rates are high due to poor healthcare. This means there are many more young children than elderly dependents, leading to a youthful population.

Describe an emerging population pyramid

Barrel or bell shaped. Still many children, but more adults as well. The sides are no longer concave - they may even be convex

Explain an emerging population pyramid

The birth rate and fertility rate improve as female education improves. This improves knowledge of contraception, as well as creating more opportunities in employment for women, which means they may choose to pursue a career, so they will likely have fewer children. As countries start to develop, children are less often used for work, so are no longer seen as an economic asset. This means that the cost of raising children is taken into account, and people begin to want a better quality of life, so they have fewer children. As general healthcare is better, more children survive to adulthood, so the middle section of the pyramid is wider

Describe a developed population pyramid

Beehive shape with steep vertical sides, a narrow base

Explain a developed population pyramid

Sides are fairly vertical as healthcare is significantly improved, so few people die prematurely. Trends seen in the emerging pyramid become even stronger, with more people having few or no children due to female education and employment, and a desire for a better quality of life. Sometimes these countries can encourage a lot of immigration due to these development opportunities, which grows the middle section of the pyramid.

What is SHEEP factors

Social, historical, environmental, economic. political

How do social factors cause inequality

Disease and poor healthcare → less people working → less taxes Good education → people earn more → more taxes Good education → people are more innovative which can help fix problems Women's equality → women can contribute to the economy → more taxes + lower birth rate → less pressure on services

How do historical factors cause inequality

Colonialism → countries take healthy adults as enslaved people, and raw materials and did not invest in the country to improve it → country is left underdeveloped when colonisers leave → leads to neo colonialism where countries still control them through tied aid and poor trade deals that are their only option

How do environmental factors cause inequality

Poor climate (too hot, cold, dry) → can’t farm Mountainous → can’t farm Mountainous → inaccessible terrain damages trade links Poor soil → can’t farm Natural disasters and hazards → government has to spend money fixing issues

How do economic factors cause inequality

Developing countries usually sell raw materials, and the prices of these fluctuate a lot, and are fairly low generally Balance of trade → primary exports + secondary imports = trade deficit (losing money, while, primary imports + secondary exports = trade surplus (making money)

How do political factors cause inequality

Civil unrest and wars → money poured into that rather than services and development Unstable governments → not in power long enough to make positive changes Corrupt governments → take money intended for services and villains needs and use it for themselves Good international relations → better trade deals Authoritarian governments → impose radical theories that can significantly help or hinder development Democratic governments → likely will not make huge decisions to impact the country one way or another

What is this? What is it arguing generally (individual stages are a different card

Rostow's modernisation theory - the idea that there are clear steps to development, and that other countries should aim to model themselves on the west in order to develop

Rostow’s modernisation theory step 1: traditional society → explain what this means + give an example

Technology is very very limited. Most people live off the land, and live in rural areas. Mali

Rostow's modernisation theory step 2: Pre-take off → explain what this means + give an example

A few low technology industries and labour intensive manufacturing begin to develop. Development of some transport infrastructure like railways and canals Sri lanka

Rostow's modernisation theory step 3: take off → explain what this means + give an example

Rapid growth of manufacturing industries and transport infrastructure. Steady growth of the economy. Administrative work begins to develop to support this Chile

Rostow's modernisation theory step 4: drive to maturity → explain what this means + give an example

Economic growth of all parts of industry and economy. New technology and industries develop to replace old ones Singapore

Rostow's modernisation theory step 5: high mass consumption → explain what this means + give an example

The economic system almost self sustaining people buy products and services, which helps businesses grow. Welfare systems are (almost) fully developed. Trade is expanding Australia

Disadvantages of Rostow's modernisation theory

Lack of explanation of how a country should move from one stage to another Assumes all countries start with the same resources and geographical factors Many countries have found it more difficult to ‘take off’ than Rostow seems to suggest

What is this? What is it saying? What is happening to countries on the periphery and why?

Franks dependency theory → Countries in the periphery tend to be trapped there and unable to develop because they are only able to sell primary goods as they have no means of manufacturing goods. The countries in the core buy these primary goods and developed enough to be able to manufacture them into secondary goods. They then sell these goods back to developing countries at a much higher price. The countries on the periphery are therefore in a trade deficit, so cannot invest more money into services and industry as they are spending it on trade. This means they cannot develop

Disadvantages of Franks theory

It suggest that countries with few resources or that were previously colonised are unable to develop, but there are examples of countries that do not follow this rule, like singapore

Top down aid: what is it?

A government or large organisation (IGO or TNC) makes decisions about development without consulting the local people

Top down aid: example

Narmada dam project, india

Top down aid: scale

Large scale, regional

Top down aid: aim (of example)

Provide hydroelectric power to a large area, and drinking water and irrigation for farmland

Top down aid: funding (of example)

Initially funded by the world bank , but pulled out in 1994 because people were not being compensated. The temples of Gujarat donated the money to complete it.

Top down aid: technology (of example)

High tech

Top down aid: advantages for the local people, environment, and economy (of example)

Irrigate 18000 km2, especially drought prone areas Water for 30 million people, irrigation 20 million Boost to industry and economy through the multiplier effect Increased electric power Wildlife sanctuaries supported

Top down aid: disadvantages for the local people, environment, and economy (of example and generally)

Many people have not been supported or compensated for displacement, or even recognised due to lack of formal land documentation Land is flooded and submerged, especially biodiversity rich forest areas If governments are corrupt, they may use the money for their own purposes Large projects are expensive and a country may have to pay back the money Projects are energy intensive, releasing lots of greenhouse gases

Bottom up aid: what is it?

Planned aid which is mostly managed by the local people with support from NGOs

Bottom up aid: example

Sand dams

Bottom up aid: scale (of example)

Local communities in east africa

Bottom up aid: aim (of example)

Mitigate the effects of climate change (soil becoming baked hard and rainwater cant infiltrate → it is lost through surface runoff, taking the top layer of of fertile soil with it) by improving access to water and soil health

Bottom up aid: funding (of example)

African Sand dam Foundation and Excellent development. All the labour is provided by local people

Bottom up aid: technology and how it works (of example)

Intermediate technology - uses timber, rocks and barbed wire. The dam is built across the bed of a seasonal river. Each time the river flows, sand is trapped behind it , which filters the river water, making it available for use

Bottom up aid: advantages for the local people, environment, and economy (of example and generally)

Local people have much easier access to water → women are able to spend more time productively, children are able to go to school regularly. People are less likely to get sick, so spend more time working, which is good for the economy Farmers able to grow more crops Positive impact on vegetation and therefore wildlife GENERALLY → often produces jobs for the local people who maintain the technology, the local people choose what matters most to improve for them

Bottom up aid: disadvantages for the local people, environment, and economy (of example)

Small scale so does not fi issues for a lot of people Different organisations may not work together so projects may be less effective than they otherwise would be

Benefits of TNCs in developing and emerging countries

Provides employment for local people More companies means a greater income of taxes for the host country Some TNCs run programmes to help development, such as opening schools or funding the building of hospitals TNCs might invest in infrastructure, to improve roads, basic services and communication links in the area

Drawbacks of TNCs in developing and emerging countries

TNCs might move around the country, or to a different country entirely, to take advantage of tax breaks and grants. This leaves local people jobless Some profits may leave the host country TNCs exploit labour available in developing countries TNCs can cause environmental problems like the dumping of toxic waste, which can cause air and water pollution

Site of India

Located in south asia Forms a large peninsular that splits the indian ocean into the bay of bengal an the arabian sea It has a central location in the indian ocean It is the 7th largest country in the world with an area of 3.3 million km2 It has over 7500km of coastline The north of India is very mountainous, as this is where the Himalayas lie It is on the tropic of cancer

Situation of India (physically)

Located between the middle east and south east asia Shares international borders with 6 countries - china, myanmar, nepal, pakistan, bhutan, bangladesh.

Historical context of India and its impact on present day India

Former British colony that gained independence from Britain in 1947. → this means that a lot of people in India speak English, which is very helpful for world trade 1947 partition that split India into India and Pakistan. Subsequently, in 1971 Bangladesh was formed. → lots of tensions in this area, especially over the Kashmir region, which is split between India, Pakistan, and China. There are lots of disagreements related to security although the area is demilitarised

How does India have a strategic location in Asia

Location near other emerging countries like China and Malaysia have acted as both a partner and a competitor, spurring India on to develop faster. The peninsula extends out into the Indian ocean, which forces passing ships to divert round it. For this reason, they often dock here, which boosts trade in this area. It’s long coastline also means it is a hub of trade

What groups is India a part of and how can this be beneficial

World trade organisation, UN, Indian Ocean Rim Association, Commonwealth. India uses these to foster better international relations, allowing it to get better trading deals

How does India’s diversity help or hinder development

Range of cultural views, religions, and languages helps to create a more tolerant society and breeds equality

Why is the Indian diaspora so important to India’s economy

The Indian diaspora is the population of Indian people who do not live in India itself. It is made up of around 20 million people, who will often send back money to India in remittances. For instance, in 2014, $71 billion was sent to India from its diaspora, boosting its economy

Why is the monsoon so important to India

The monsoon is the world's most powerful weather system, blowing from the north east in colder months and from the south west in warmer months, bringing with it a lot of rain that is essential for irrigation and farming. On the other hand, it can also cause extreme flooding

India’s political context (voting, groups, britain)

World's largest democracy Growing global influence as it is part of organisations like the UN Improving relations with Britain after colonialism

India’s social context (population, inequality, out, conditions, class)

World’s largest population, with huge megacities like Kolkata and Mumbai Huge variations in development within India Huge diaspora of 20 million people who send remittances back to India Some of the worst urban slums are found in India, which house ¼ of the urban population India’s society is divided into castes, which is determined by their parent’s status. St the bottom is the ‘untouchables’ who have very low paid jobs and no caste

India’s cultural context (ancient , diverse, founding, films)

Among the world's most ancient cultures - Hinduism dates back 5000 years Culturally diverse with a wide range of religions and over 1500 language The birthplace of 4 major religions (Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism) India has the largest film industry, Bollywood, which produces 1200 films a year

India’s environmental context (landscapes, diverse, weather, pollution)

Varied from tropical in the south to temperate in the northern mountains Monsoon bringing vital rainfall but can also cause flooding Range of landscapes like mountains, jungles, deserts and rivers. Very biodiverse - 6% of the world’s bird and plant species (though these are threatened by development). Has some of the world's worst problems with pollution. It is the 3rd greatest emitter of greenhouse gases

How has GNI per capita increased in India since the 1990s (statistic)

1990 - 1210 2020 - 6390 Percentage increase - 428% → huge increase, people are becoming wealthier

How have India’s main exports changed since the 1990s? (no stat, example products + overall picture)

1990 - primary products like tea, iron ore, fish, some low value manufactured goods like clothes 2020 - high value manufactured goods like machinery, pharmaceutical products, vehicles, petrol

→ higher tech exports and more diversified

How have India’s main imports changed since the 1990s (no stat, example products + overall picture)

1990 - manufactured goods like textiles, machinery, and chemicals 2020 - crude oil, precious metals, machinery, fertiliser

→ greater dependence on energy needed for creating infrastructure and transport

How has the employment sector in India changed? How has this allowed India to develop

In the 1980s most people were subsistence farmers, which was not particularly profitable. 1990s - government adopted a pro FDI and TNCs policy to encourage the growth of the secondary industry. Many people found work in factories. This meant that they had more money than they did before, so were now able to pay for services. This meant the demand for the tertiary sector increased, and wroekrs in this sector earn more than the workers in the primary and secondary sectors. This money collected in taxes allows India to develop, improving services like healthcare as well and transport infrastructure?

How has FDI helped to improve India’s development since the 1990s (stat + what it does in general + what is india doing)

Inward: 1995 - 5.6 (billion USD) 2024 - 550 India is now the top location in the world for FDI investors This increase in FDI has helped India to develop as it allows it to invest more money into transport and infrastructure. The Indian government encourages this investment by using liberalisation policies (lower taxes, simpler planning rules) India has also been investing more money overseas, a sign of its development

FACT: More than BLANK of Indians now own a mobile phone. India has the BLANK largest wireless network in the world How will this help India to develop?

50%, second Creating jobs in the technology industry Building foreign relations Helping trade through communication Encouraging FDI and TNCs to invest

FACT: India has BLANK ports and BLANK international airports, as well as an extensive rail network for both BLANK and BLANK How will this help India to develop?

12, 20, passengers, goods Helps trade Helps tourism industry Encourages FDI

FACT: India’s road system has more than BLANK in length since the 1990s. Money has been invested in transport systems How will this help India to develop?

Doubled Helps trade Helps tourism industry Encourages FDI Allowing people to travel to work and school more easily

FACT: Primary education is now free and compulsory in India. BLANK% of children now attend school. Literacy rates have risen dramatically, and the school system has been improved further as it receives a lot of BLANK How will this help India to develop?

96, FDI Schooling allows people to get better jobs in the future Higher taxes Advancements in technology Women are better educated, lowering the birth rate

FACT: many BLANK now outsource manufacturing, software development, call centres, or admin to India How will this help India to develop?

TNCs More taxes to improve services More skilled jobs means higher income, more money to spend on services

Maharashtra is India’s BLANK core region, while Bihar is the BLANK state

Richest, poorest

Why is Maharashtra experiencing economic growth? Multiplier effect.

Lots of universities in the area, and graduates often find jobs with big TNCs afterwards Large factories provide unskilled labour A lot of people are in the area therefore have secondary, tertiary, or even quaternary sector jobs, so they earn a lot of money This helps the government improve the area through taxes It also means that they have more money to spend → higher demand for housing and services which creates more jobs

Why is Bihar not really developing?

Most people are subsistence farmers so the government receives little taxes It is in a periphery region so receives little FDI Poor transport links makes it hard to commute to cities for work Young people leave to go to the cities for work, leaving behind more vulnerable elderly people It has a caste system which makes it difficult for people to escape poverty School attendance is low, only ⅓ of children complete primary school Women often have low paid jobs, marry early and have many children

What are the consequences of Bihar not developing for its people

Only 59% of its people have access to electricity 50% of people work below the poverty line and 80% work in unskilled labour

Maharashtra’s income per capita is about BLANK x that of bihar

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Compare the healthcare systems of maharashtra and bihar

Bihar: Extreme lack of resources. 60% of people to not have access to adequate healthcare Maharashtra: Excellent. Over 4800 hospitals. First state in India to have 9 women’s hospitals.

Compare education in Maharashtra and Bihar

Maharashtra: 5-7 unis in Maharashtra are in the top 20 in India. 24 unis in maharashtra overall 160,000 graduates every year. Bihar: ⅔ do not complete school, though this is gradually improving. Literacy rates are also very low but growing

Compare employment in Maharashtra and Bihar

Maharashtra: formal, high paid work in tertiary and quaternary sector jobs such as IT and Bollywood. Many work for TNCs Bihar: Subsistence farming and informal sector

Compare transport, services, and infrastructure in Maharashtra and Bihar

Maharashtra: great access to airports, harbours, railways, electricity, banking etc Bihar: limited transport, unreliable supply of electricity and internet access

Compare population change and movement (and the impacts of this) in Maharashtra and Bihar

Maharashtra: rural-urban migration of working age people provides a pool of skilled workers, though this can put pressure on housing, water, and sanitation Bihar: workers leave to find jobs, draining the area of skills and leaving behind vulnerable people who are unable to make a living

Compare environmental impacts and challenges in Maharashtra and Bihar

Maharashtra: rapid industrial growth increases air pollution, water pollution, traffic congestion, pressure on sewage. Slums and informal settlements are the worst effected Bihar: flood risk, water pollution, pressure on resources

How economic development and globalisation impacts the population: positives for the elderly

Better healthcare services = longer life

How economic development and globalisation impacts the population: negatives for the elderly

Older people often live in rural villages so benefit a lot less from India’s economic growth, which is mainly concentrated in urban areas

How economic development and globalisation impacts the population: positives for adults

Higher education is more available. Higher paid jobs in the tertiary and quaternary sector are more available

How economic development and globalisation impacts the population: negatives for adults

Working conditions may be poor due to rapid urbanisation and a lack of regulations put in place by the Indian government to encourage more FDI and TNCs

How economic development and globalisation impacts the population: positives for children

Better schooling in urban areas due to a rise in the number of skilled teachers Literacy rates rising Lower infant mortality rate

How economic development and globalisation impacts the population: negatives for children

Still a lack of skilled teachers and therefore schooling in rural areas . Children may have to work as agricultural labourers to support their families, especially is some family members have left to find work in the city

How economic development and globalisation impacts the population: positives for women

Women have much better access to education and female literacy rates are improving dramatically Women have better access to education and family planning advice

How economic development and globalisation impacts the population: negatives for women

It is very unsafe for women in urban areas - crimes against women rising by 20% 2014-2015 When men leave for work in the city, women are left to take care of the home, the children, and have a job Only ⅓ of working age women have jobs Access to finance has improved for more for men that it has for women Though it is improving, the status of women in India remains mostly low.