Sociology Key Concepts and Theories

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key sociological concepts, theories, and research methods from the lecture notes.

Sociological Imagination

Connecting personal troubles to public issues (C. Wright Mills).

Verstehen

Understanding behavior by seeing through another’s perspective (Weber).

Conflict Theory

Theory that views society as groups competing for resources; inequality is built-in (Marx).

Symbolic Interaction Theory

Theory that states society is created through interactions and shared meanings.

Social Facts

External societal forces that shape individual behavior (Durkheim).

Qualitative Research

Research based on non-numerical data such as interviews and observations.

Quantitative Research

Research based on numerical or statistical data.

Causality

The relationship where X causes Y.

Correlation

A relationship where X and Y move together but with no proven cause.

Independent Variable

The cause or predictor in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

The outcome being measured in an experiment.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction.

Operational Definition

The precise way in which a variable is measured.

Culture

Shared beliefs, behaviors, and values.

Material Culture

Physical objects that are part of a culture.

Nonmaterial Culture

Values, norms, and beliefs that characterize a culture.

Ideology

Beliefs that justify social arrangements.

Subculture

A group with distinct norms within a larger culture.

Counterculture

Cultural groups that oppose the dominant culture.

Sanctions

Rewards or punishments enforcing norms.

Cultural Lag

The phenomenon where nonmaterial culture changes slower than material culture.

Cultural Leveling

The process by which cultures become more similar.

Socialization

The process of learning norms, roles, and values.

Looking Glass Self

A self-concept based on how we think others perceive us (Cooley).

Role Taking

Imagining ourselves in others’ positions (Mead).

Generalized Other

Internalized expectations of society.

Agents of Socialization

Major sources of socialization, including family, school, peers, and media.

Accomplishment of Natural Growth

A parenting style characterized by autonomy and less structured activities (Lareau).

Primary Group

A group characterized by intimate, long-term relationships.

Secondary Group

A group that is more impersonal and goal-oriented.

In-Group

A group that one identifies with.

Out-Group

A group that one sees as different or opposing.

Reference Group

A group that one compares oneself to.

Clique

A tight-knit subgroup.

Asch Experiment

An experiment demonstrating conformity to group pressure.

Social Network

A web of social ties between individuals.

Small World Phenomenon

The concept that everyone is connected by short social paths (Six Degrees).

Deviance

The violation of social norms.

Stigma

A discrediting characteristic or label.

Crime

The violation of written laws.

Social Control

The enforcement of norms through formal and informal means.

Labeling Theory

The theory that labels affect identity and future behavior.

Estate System

A stratification system based on feudal principles; marked by limited mobility.

Caste System

A system where one's status is fixed at birth with no mobility.

Class System

A stratification system based on achievement with mobility possible.

Meritocracy

A system in which status is based entirely on individual merit.

Social Mobility

The ability to move up or down in social class.

Upward Mobility

The process of rising in social class.

Downward Mobility

The process of falling in social class.

Structural Mobility

Mobility that results from social changes rather than individual actions.

Sex

The biological categorization of individuals.

Gender

The social roles and expectations associated with being male or female.

Gender Stratification

The unequal access to power and prestige based on gender.

Gender Socialization

The process of learning gender norms.

Patriarchy

A social system dominated by males.

Glass Ceiling

An invisible barrier that prevents women from advancing in their careers.

Testosterone Bonus

The phenomenon where men receive higher pay due to gender advantages.

Race (Sociological)

A socially constructed category based on perceived physical traits.

Minority Group

A group with less power and unequal treatment.

Dominant Group

The group with the most power and privilege.

Prejudice

A negative attitude towards a group.

Discrimination

Unequal treatment of individuals based on group membership.

Individual Discrimination

Unfair treatment by one individual against another.

Institutional Discrimination

Discrimination that is built into societal systems.

Racism

The belief that one race is superior to others.

Segregation

The separation of groups based on race or ethnicity.

Social Class

A division of society based on wealth, income, education, and prestige.

Prestige

The respect and admiration that a status commands.

Status

A social position within a hierarchy.

Status Consistency

The alignment of prestige, income, and education.

Poverty

The state of having insufficient resources.

Culture of Poverty

The belief that poverty is perpetuated through values and lifestyles across generations.

Health & Social Class

The correlation between lower social class and worse health outcomes.

Intergenerational Mobility

The movement in social class relative to one's parents.

Sick Role

The expected behaviors of individuals who are sick.

Epidemiology

The study of disease distribution in populations.

Defensive Medicine

The practice of conducting extra tests to prevent legal issues.

Social Determinants of Health

Factors such as race, class, and gender that affect health outcomes.

Endogamy

Marrying within one’s own group.

Exogamy

Marrying outside one’s own group.

Monogamy

The practice of having one partner.

Cohabitation

Living together without being married.

Sandwich Generation

Adults responsible for both children and aging parents.

Hidden Curriculum

Unwritten norms and values taught within the education system.

Tracking

The practice of sorting students into different academic paths.

Signaling

The concept that degrees indicate potential ability to employers.

Grade Inflation

The trend of increasing grades without a corresponding increase in learning.