Bone physiology I: cartilage and bone tissue and gross and microscopic anatomy of bones

Cartilage 

connective tissue in between bones

structure of cartilage

cartilage plate surrounded by a well vascularized dense CT membrane-perichondrium. Nutrients diffuse to chondrocytes from blood vessels in perichondrium

Skeletal Cartilage

type of connective tissue that forms the framework of the skeleton.

fetal skeleton

made of cartilage and fibrous membranes which are eventually replaced by bones.

what are the three skeletal cartilages

hyaline, elastic, and fibrocartilage

hyaline cartilage

-provides support with flexibility and resilience.

-it is the most abundant type of skeletal cartilage.

locations:

-ends of movable joints - articular cartilage.

-connecting the ribs to the sternum - costal cartilage.

-forming the skeleton of the larynx - laryngeal cartilage.

-reinforcing passageways to the respiratory system - tracheal and bronchial cartilages.

-supporting the external nose - nasal cartilages

Elastic cartilage

able to withstand repeated bending.

-found in two skeletal locations: external ear and the epiglottis.

Fibrocartilage

-highly compressible and provides for tensile strength.

-found in skeletal locations that are subjected to heavy pressure and stretch.

-pad-like cartilages of the knee - menisci.

-intervertebral disks.

Appositional cartilage growth

growth from the outside.

-chondrocytes below surrounding perichondrium secrete a new matrix against the existing cartilage.

Interstitial cartilage growth

growth from within.

-lacunae bound chondrocyte divide and secrete new matrix

Functions of bones

Support: provide the framework of the body and cradle organs.

Protection: provided the skull, ribs, and the vertebral column.

 Movement: muscles attach to the bones and use them as levers to move body parts.

Mineral storage: bone is a reservoir for minerals (calcium and phosphate).

Blood cell formation: (hematopoiesis) occurs within certain bone marrow cavities.

Organic components of bone

responsible for bone’s flexibility and high tensile strength, has GAG, glycoproteins, collagen

what are the cell types

Osteoblast, osteocytes, osteoclasts

Osteoblasts

found in inner and outer surfaces of a bone

osteocytes

trapped by osteoid, mature bone cells, enclosed by mineralized osteoid maintain matrix-resorptive, synthetic

Osteoclasts

found in inner and outer surfaces of a bone. destroy bone, secrete proteases and acids

Proteases

destroy osteoid

Acids

dissolve bony matrix, release stored calcium and phosphates

Osteoid

organic part of matrix, secreted by osteoblast: GAG, glycoproteins, and collagen fibers

collagen fibers

responsible for bone's flexibility and high tensile strength

Inorganic components of bone

compressional strength

- present as crystals between collagen fibers in the osteoid.

- responsible for hardness of bones.

Hydroxyapatites

mineral salts, mostly calcium phosphates

calcium hydroxide

Responsible for hardness of bones

How are bones classified?

by shape as long, short, flat, or irregular

two types of osseous tissue

compact bone and spongy bone

compact bone

smooth and homogenous. dense and solid

spongy bone

composed of trabeculae and has much open space; space between the trabeculae is filled with marrow.

Large bones

-longer than wide

-include most bones of limbs.-

primarily compact bone but can contain spongy bone in the interior

Short bones

-include bones of the wrist and ankle.

-roughly cube-like.

-mostly spongy bone with a thin compact bone surface layer.

Flat bones

-include the sternum, ribs, and most skull bones.

-thin, flattened, and slightly curved.

-two, roughly parallel, compact bone surfaces with enclosing a layer of spongy bone.

Irregular bones

-include the vertebrae and hip bones.

-don't fit in any of the previous classes.

-mostly spongy bone enclosed by a thin layer of compact bone.

Structure of long bones.

Diaphysis: shaft

composed of compact bone surrounding the medullary cavity (contains yellow marrow)

Structure of long bones

Epiphyses

found on bone ends and are more expanded than the diaphysis: compact bone on exterior, spongy bone interior; articular cartilage covers joint surfaces.

Structure of long bones

Epiphyseal Line:

found between the diaphysis and the epiphyses, remnant of epiphyseal plate.

Structure of long bones

Membranes I

CT linings of the internal and external surfaces bone surfaces.

Periosteum

doubled layered membrane that lines the external bone surface.

periosteum is richly supplied with nerves and blood vessels, secured to the underlying bone by collagen fibers extending from the outer fibrous layer (Sharpey's Fibers)

·      outer fibrous layer - dense irregular connective tissue.

-inner osteogenic layer - abuts bone surfaces; osteoblasts, osteoclasts

Endosteum

a delicate connective tissue membrane lining all internal bone surfaces: trabeculae of spongy bones in marrow cavities, medullary cavities in compact bone, canals of compact bone; contains osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

Structure of short, irregular and flat bones

thin pates of periosteum covered compact bone enclosing endosteum covered spongy bone -no diaphysis or epiphyses.

-bone marrow is found between the trabeculae.

-in flat bone the inner layer is spongy bone = diploë.

Location of hematopoietic tissue in bones

found within some cavities of spongy bone in long bones and in diploë of flat bones.

-newborns: medullary cavities/all areas of spongy bone contain red marrow.

-adults: medullary cavities contain yellow marrow; little red marrow present in spongy bone, exceptions are femur and humerus. Hematopoiesis mostly in red marrow of diploe of flat bones (sternum), in some irregular bones (hip bone) in the head of the femur and humerus.

Microscopic structure of compact bones

very dense, contains thorough system of canals and passageways.

-osteon (Haversian System) - structural unit of compact bone.

osteon (Haversian System)

-elongated cylinders running parallel to the long axis of the bone.

-formed groups of hollow tubes of bone matrix arranged concentrically.

-each matrix tube is called a lamella.

-collagen fibers within lamella run in a single direction, in adjacent lamella fibers run in opposite directions - withstand tensions.

-core of the osteon - Haversian canal (central canal) - contains blood vessels and nerve fibers serving cells in osteon.

-Perforating canals (Volkmann's): lie perpendicular to the long axis of bone.

-connect nerve and vascular supply of periosteum to those in the central canals and medullary cavity .

Compact bone – osteon structure

Osteocyte, canaliculi, interstitial lamellae, circumferential lamellae

Osteocyte

spider shaped mature bone cells occupy lacunae between lamellae.

canaliculi

hair-like canals between lacunae, continuous with central canal

circumferential lamellae

lamellae beneath periosteum, extend around circumference of the shaft.

interstitial lamellae

incomplete lamellae.

Spongy bone

consists of trabeculae a few cell layers thick; contain irregular lamellae and osteocytes interconnected with canaliculi; no osteons.

-trabeculae are arranged along the lines of stress.

osteogenesis

the process of bone formation

in embryos - leads to the formation of bony skeleton.

-in childhood through early adulthood - results in bone growth and increased size.

-in adulthood - remodeling and repair of bones.

Osteogenesis

formation of bony skeleton

Formation of bony skeleton: (ossification in embryo)

at 6 weeks, the skeleton of an embryo - fibrous membranes/hyaline cartilage.

-bone formation involves replacing this skeleton with bone tissue.

intramembranous ossification

bone develops from a fibrous membrane.

formation of all flat bones.

-mesenchymal cells of fibrous membrane differentiate into osteoblasts, secrete osteoid.

-osteoid become mineralized, osteoblasts trapped in lacunae become osteocytes.

-as the osteoid deposits accumulate and mineralization continues, a network of trabeculae formed that encloses local blood vessels - woven bone.

-collagen fibers are arranged irregularly.

-collagen fibers form networks, not lamellae.

-concurrently, a layer of vascular mesenchyme condenses external to the woven bone, periosteum development.

-trabeculae below periosteum thicken, form continuous plates of bone, first woven bone later compact bone.

-trabeculae in center of the bone remain distinct so spongy bone is produced.

-vascular tissue within spongy bone differentiates into red marrow, diploe.

endochondral ossification

bone develops from hyaline cartilage.

forms other bones of the skeleton (non-flat bones).

-template is hyaline cartilage.

-begins at the primary ossification center at the center of the hyaline cartilage shaft.

-perichondrium is infiltrated with blood vessels, becomes a vascularized periosteum.

-osteoblasts of newly "converted" periosteum secretes osteoid against hyaline cartilage shaft, encases it in a bone collar.

-hyaline cartilage in center shaft calcifies, bone collar continues formation externally.

-chondrocytes within the shaft enlarge, surrounding cartilage calcifies, nutrients cannot get to center of the shaft, chondrocytes die, the matrix begins to deteriorate - cavity formation.

-forming cavities are invaded by periosteal bud - brings a nutrient artery, vein, lymphatics, nerve fiber, red bone marrow elements, osteoblast/osteoclasts into the cavity.

-entering osteoblasts secrete osteoid around remaining cartilage fragments - bone covered cartilage trabeculae (precursor of spongy bone).

-primary ossification centers enlarge proximally and distally - osteoclasts break down newly formed spongy bone, open up a medullary cavity in the center of the shaft, final step in shaft ossification.

-recall that throughout the fetal period, rapidly growing epiphyses consists only of cartilage.

-shortly before birth, secondary ossification centers appear at the epiphyses.

-cartilage at the center of the secondary ossification centers in the epiphyses calcifies and deteriorates to form a cavity.

-entry of the periosteal bud.

-bone matrix secreted around the remaining cartilage fragments.

-spongy bone is retained and there is no cavity formation.

-cartilage remains only at articular cartilage and at epiphyseal plates.

All bones grow in thickness by

appositional growth