Congress

Bicameralism

A system of government with the legislature divided into 2 separate chambers or houses; Senate and The House of Representatives

Congressional Caucuses

These are groups of legislators who share special interests and meet to pursue common legislative objectives, e.g. black caucus, women’s caucus, Hispanic caucus

Divided government

When the House of Representatives, Senate and presidency are not all controlled by one party.

Filibuster

When a senator gives a prolonged speech on the floor of the Senate in order to obstruct legislative progress of a bill or confirmation of appointments to the Executive or judiciary.

Gridlock

A situation in US politics where the president and Congress are equally powerful, constantly preventing each other from acting, resulting in difficulty passing legislation.

Incumbency

The current holder of a political office re House or Senate seat or presidency.

Mid term elections

Congressional elections held mid-way through a President’s four year term.

Oversight

The ability of one branch of government to supervise the work of another.

Partisanship

A situation in which Congressmen/women are incredibly loyal to their party, even when it means that the result is gridlock.

Unanimous consent

A senator or Congressman/woman may request unanimous consent on the floor to set aside a specified rule of procedure so as to expedite proceedings.

Pigeon holed

Legislative process where bill is effectively killed by ignoring or refusing to act on it

90% of bills are pigeonholed

Filibuster

Used in the Senate to delay or block a vote on a bill or other legislative action

Cloture Motion

A tool used in the Senate to end a filibuster 16 senators much sign a cloture motion to initiate then 3/5 of Senate must approve it

Pocket veto

Indirect veto by taking no action on it and the congress session ends

How many people are in the Senate?

100

How many people are in the HOR?

435

How often is the senate elected compared to the HOR?

Every 6 years

Every 2 years

How many senators per state compared to congressmen?

2 senators

Proportional HOR

What are overall requirments to be in the senate?

25+

US citzen for atleast 7 years
Live in state you represent

What are overall requirments to be in the HOR?

30+

US citzen for atleast 9 yeats

Live in state you represent

What are Key senate positions?

President of the senate (Vice) - tie break vote

Majority leader - set agenda and spokesperon

Minority leader - counter to maj leader

What are Key HOR positions?

Speaker- Highest in HOR (second to presidency behind VP)

Majoirty leaders

Minority leader

2022 Midterm Case Study

Context: Overturning of Roe vs Wade many voters voted for Democrats so did much better than expected

Makeup: Senate 49 Republicans 48 Democrats 3 Independents

HOR 222 Republicans and 213 Democrats

Key figures: Majority leader in Senate - Chuck Schumer

Minority- Mitch MConnell

Both very senior

Mike Johson Speaker in 2024

Hakeen Jeffiers in 2023 Replace Nancy Pelosi

Where are congress powers laid out?

Article 1 ;

Power to pass legilsation

Power to declare War

Elastic Caluse

Article 2:
Power to overturn a Presidential Veto

Article 5:

Can propse a constitutional amendment

what did the 16th amendment give congress?

Power to levy income taxes

What are exclusive powers of the Senate?

Impeach with 2/3 majority

Ratify treaties 2/3 majority

Elect a Vice Preisdent
Confirm Executive appointments

What are exclusive powers of the House of Represtatives?

Impeach President or other federal official : Clinton Trump

Initiate revenue raising bills - Senate initially unelected

Power to elect the president if no candidate has majoirty electoral college votes

What do both houses share? X4

1. Power to pass legislation

2. Override vetoes with a 2/3 in both

3. Power to declare War

4. If VP office is vacant they can confirm president new appointment with a majority

Why is the senate more prestigous? X6

1. Senate represents the entire state rather than small districts

2. Face election less often

3. Smaller number of senators so can gain important roles easier

4. Vote and voice more important on votes

5. Often used to select VP

6. Lots of important exclusive powers

What are the 3 roles of congress

Representation

Oversight
Legislation

What is the Trustee Model?

Elected representatives are given the responsibility to excercise their judgement and held to account for their decisions at the next election

What is the delegate model?

Representatives shouldnt be free to excercise own judgement and should act on behald of consitutients (more likely to apply to the HOR as 2 year term)

What is the resemblance model?

How descriptevely represeative a body is of the population in terms of gender ethnity and social class different groups value different things

What electoral system is used in most states?

FPTP plurality of votes wins

How do elections in Louisina and Georiga work ?

If no majority there is a run off between top two finishers to decide who is elected

What are mid-terms often described as?

Referendum on first 2 years of presidency

Why are midterms important?

Can lead to lame duck presidency

Coattails effect- the presidential campaign helps the party do well in congress- not present in midterms

Lower turnout

What can sucess of incuebnts imply? how is this contrasted

Democracy is weak as makeup changes little congress to congress- really only effects the partisan tilt of states/ districts

How was states tried to limit incumbency? how is this contrasted

Introduce term limits in Congress- Struck down by Supreme Court as Unconstitutional

How is Incumbency useful?

• Use of office and financial advantage

• Name recogition- sit on committee

• Safe seats and gerrymandering

• Pork Barrel Legislation

What is Pork Barrel Legilsation?

Representatives only agree to vote for a bill even if it is unrelated and can lead to unnecessary spending if it will benefit particular members of their constituency in order to get re elected

What was increasingly challenged incumbents?

• Primary challenges from radicals

• AOC to Joseph Crowley

• Republicans by Trump backed candidates(Liz Cheney) unseated

• Why less voted to impeach Trump as fear of unseated

What factors effect voting behaviour in Congress?

Parties

Cacuses

Interest Groups and lobbyists

Electoral incentives within their constituency

How do parties effect voting behavior ?

Arent as united as in HOC so party loine less common

Party leaders not part of gov so no power of patronage

But

Significant pressure from leadership to vote along party line through minority and majority whips

Each week party caucuses meet to try unite support: patronage, chairmanship, pork barreling and supporting against primary challenges

Rise in hyper partisanship led to voting on party line (fewer moderated ) and parties vote on line increase

How do caucauses effect voting behaviour?

Vote together and act as a group

Factions

How do interest groups effect voting behaviour in Congress

Mobilise people

Political discussion
Pressure

MONEY

How do Electoral incentives within constituency effect voting behaviour

How believe their vote will effect the likelyhood of winning the next election (v important for house)

May vote against the party line if want to be reflected

Joe Manchin rep West Virginia so votes with Republcans as they are a Red state

May force Congress people to vote along the line to get elected only 10 Republican senators wanted to impeach Trump

Safe seats less likely to care as voters will vote them back in anyway

How do bills pass?

By both Senate and HOR

• 1st reading/ initiation by member of Congress (sent to standing committee happens very often

• Committee stage hold a hearing and marks amendments

• Timetabling stage deciding which is voted/discussed on : negotiation between maj and min leaders in senate in HOUse- house rules committee decides (shows importance)the

• Debate and vote on House of the Floor

• Conference Committee and Reconciliation

• President sign/ veto

Where do revenue bills have to originate?

HOR

How is UK legislature to different due to lack of ping pong?

Informal agreements between party leaders and amendments be exchanged

What did Congress introduce in 1998 to tackle pork barreling?

a line item veto allowing specific parts of a bill to be vetoed

but supreme court declared this unconsitutional

How can a president be sly about signing a bill?

leave on desk for 10 days meaning automatically becomes law or if sessions ends the bill dies without public scurtnity

Key differences between senate and HOR regarding legislature?

HOR ‘power of the purse’ meaning bills don’t have a second reading and cant be amended by the Senate

Timetabling is done by Unamious Consent Agreement in Senate but House Rules in House - meaning Senate more likely to amend as they HR can intrdouce closed rule preventing amednments

Senate has no limit of speech length- allow filibuster House is limited to 40 mins

HOR has so many members meaning unlikely a member will be on multiple committes meaning will be more knowedlgeable not case in Senate

VP break tie in Senate not in house as a tie means vote no pass

How many bills passed in 177th Congress?

Just 365

Why does legislation struggle to be passed?

• Weak powers of patronage so difficult to enforce party discipline (rare for large maj so need all votes possible)

• All senate, house AND president have to agree but in Uk only need majority in HOC and force in HOL

• Hyperparisanship

• Supermajoity to overturn a presidential veto is hard to achieve

• Bills have to be accepted by a committee even before they are debated - often significant amendments before reach the floor

How can a filibuster be ended?

60 votes preventing intent to filibuster

Cloture motion which needs a 2/3 vote

Why is filibuster less power?

Nuclear option to eliminate the use of it on executive branch and judicial nominees apart from Supreme Court

How are committees important in Congress"?

Often said where the real business gets done

Around 200 committes and sub committees

Specialist knowledge

Can vero legislation but not schedule timetable

What are important committes?

House Appropriations Committee (controls legislation over gov spending)

Senate Foreign Relations Committe (scrutinises executives foreign policy)

What are stengths of legilsative in Congess?

Some bipartisanship

Veto points ensure thorough scrutiny

Committes are experts and specialised

Presidential veto is a check against Congress

Ability to responsd to nation priorities

What are weaknesses of legilsative in Congess?

High rate of legislative failure

Partisanship and divided government lead to gricklock

Filibustering is a tool for minority obstruction

Complexity and multiple veto points are a barrier

Influence of lobbying as special interests