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Bicameralism
A system of government with the legislature divided into 2 separate chambers or houses; Senate and The House of Representatives
Congressional Caucuses
These are groups of legislators who share special interests and meet to pursue common legislative objectives, e.g. black caucus, women’s caucus, Hispanic caucus
Divided government
When the House of Representatives, Senate and presidency are not all controlled by one party.
Filibuster
When a senator gives a prolonged speech on the floor of the Senate in order to obstruct legislative progress of a bill or confirmation of appointments to the Executive or judiciary.
Gridlock
A situation in US politics where the president and Congress are equally powerful, constantly preventing each other from acting, resulting in difficulty passing legislation.
Incumbency
The current holder of a political office re House or Senate seat or presidency.
Mid term elections
Congressional elections held mid-way through a President’s four year term.
Oversight
The ability of one branch of government to supervise the work of another.
Partisanship
A situation in which Congressmen/women are incredibly loyal to their party, even when it means that the result is gridlock.
Unanimous consent
A senator or Congressman/woman may request unanimous consent on the floor to set aside a specified rule of procedure so as to expedite proceedings.
Pigeon holed
Legislative process where bill is effectively killed by ignoring or refusing to act on it
90% of bills are pigeonholed
Filibuster
Used in the Senate to delay or block a vote on a bill or other legislative action
Cloture Motion
A tool used in the Senate to end a filibuster 16 senators much sign a cloture motion to initiate then 3/5 of Senate must approve it
Pocket veto
Indirect veto by taking no action on it and the congress session ends
How many people are in the Senate?
100
How many people are in the HOR?
435
How often is the senate elected compared to the HOR?
Every 6 years
Every 2 years
How many senators per state compared to congressmen?
2 senators
Proportional HOR
What are overall requirments to be in the senate?
25+
US citzen for atleast 7 years
Live in state you represent
What are overall requirments to be in the HOR?
30+
US citzen for atleast 9 yeats
Live in state you represent
What are Key senate positions?
President of the senate (Vice) - tie break vote
Majority leader - set agenda and spokesperon
Minority leader - counter to maj leader
What are Key HOR positions?
Speaker- Highest in HOR (second to presidency behind VP)
Majoirty leaders
Minority leader
2022 Midterm Case Study
Context: Overturning of Roe vs Wade many voters voted for Democrats so did much better than expected
Makeup: Senate 49 Republicans 48 Democrats 3 Independents
HOR 222 Republicans and 213 Democrats
Key figures: Majority leader in Senate - Chuck Schumer
Minority- Mitch MConnell
Both very senior
Mike Johson Speaker in 2024
Hakeen Jeffiers in 2023 Replace Nancy Pelosi
Where are congress powers laid out?
Article 1 ;
Power to pass legilsation
Power to declare War
Elastic Caluse
Article 2:
Power to overturn a Presidential Veto
Article 5:
Can propse a constitutional amendment
what did the 16th amendment give congress?
Power to levy income taxes
What are exclusive powers of the Senate?
Impeach with 2/3 majority
Ratify treaties 2/3 majority
Elect a Vice Preisdent
Confirm Executive appointments
What are exclusive powers of the House of Represtatives?
Impeach President or other federal official : Clinton Trump
Initiate revenue raising bills - Senate initially unelected
Power to elect the president if no candidate has majoirty electoral college votes
What do both houses share? X4
Power to pass legislation
Override vetoes with a 2/3 in both
Power to declare War
If VP office is vacant they can confirm president new appointment with a majority
Why is the senate more prestigous? X6
Senate represents the entire state rather than small districts
Face election less often
Smaller number of senators so can gain important roles easier
Vote and voice more important on votes
Often used to select VP
Lots of important exclusive powers
What are the 3 roles of congress
Representation
Oversight
Legislation
What is the Trustee Model?
Elected representatives are given the responsibility to excercise their judgement and held to account for their decisions at the next election
What is the delegate model?
Representatives shouldnt be free to excercise own judgement and should act on behald of consitutients (more likely to apply to the HOR as 2 year term)
What is the resemblance model?
How descriptevely represeative a body is of the population in terms of gender ethnity and social class different groups value different things
What electoral system is used in most states?
FPTP plurality of votes wins
How do elections in Louisina and Georiga work ?
If no majority there is a run off between top two finishers to decide who is elected
What are mid-terms often described as?
Referendum on first 2 years of presidency
Why are midterms important?
Can lead to lame duck presidency
Coattails effect- the presidential campaign helps the party do well in congress- not present in midterms
Lower turnout
What can sucess of incuebnts imply? how is this contrasted
Democracy is weak as makeup changes little congress to congress- really only effects the partisan tilt of states/ districts
How was states tried to limit incumbency? how is this contrasted
Introduce term limits in Congress- Struck down by Supreme Court as Unconstitutional
How is Incumbency useful?
Use of office and financial advantage
Name recogition- sit on committee
Safe seats and gerrymandering
Pork Barrel Legislation
What is Pork Barrel Legilsation?
Representatives only agree to vote for a bill even if it is unrelated and can lead to unnecessary spending if it will benefit particular members of their constituency in order to get re elected
What was increasingly challenged incumbents?
Primary challenges from radicals
AOC to Joseph Crowley
Republicans by Trump backed candidates(Liz Cheney) unseated
Why less voted to impeach Trump as fear of unseated
What factors effect voting behaviour in Congress?
Parties
Cacuses
Interest Groups and lobbyists
Electoral incentives within their constituency
How do parties effect voting behavior ?
Arent as united as in HOC so party loine less common
Party leaders not part of gov so no power of patronage
But
Significant pressure from leadership to vote along party line through minority and majority whips
Each week party caucuses meet to try unite support: patronage, chairmanship, pork barreling and supporting against primary challenges
Rise in hyper partisanship led to voting on party line (fewer moderated ) and parties vote on line increase
How do caucauses effect voting behaviour?
Vote together and act as a group
Factions
How do interest groups effect voting behaviour in Congress
Mobilise people
Political discussion
Pressure
MONEY
How do Electoral incentives within constituency effect voting behaviour
How believe their vote will effect the likelyhood of winning the next election (v important for house)
May vote against the party line if want to be reflected
Joe Manchin rep West Virginia so votes with Republcans as they are a Red state
May force Congress people to vote along the line to get elected only 10 Republican senators wanted to impeach Trump
Safe seats less likely to care as voters will vote them back in anyway
How do bills pass?
By both Senate and HOR
1st reading/ initiation by member of Congress (sent to standing committee happens very often
Committee stage hold a hearing and marks amendments
Timetabling stage deciding which is voted/discussed on : negotiation between maj and min leaders in senate in HOUse- house rules committee decides (shows importance)the
Debate and vote on House of the Floor
Conference Committee and Reconciliation
President sign/ veto
Where do revenue bills have to originate?
HOR
How is UK legislature to different due to lack of ping pong?
Informal agreements between party leaders and amendments be exchanged
What did Congress introduce in 1998 to tackle pork barreling?
a line item veto allowing specific parts of a bill to be vetoed
but supreme court declared this unconsitutional
How can a president be sly about signing a bill?
leave on desk for 10 days meaning automatically becomes law or if sessions ends the bill dies without public scurtnity
Key differences between senate and HOR regarding legislature?
HOR ‘power of the purse’ meaning bills don’t have a second reading and cant be amended by the Senate
Timetabling is done by Unamious Consent Agreement in Senate but House Rules in House - meaning Senate more likely to amend as they HR can intrdouce closed rule preventing amednments
Senate has no limit of speech length- allow filibuster House is limited to 40 mins
HOR has so many members meaning unlikely a member will be on multiple committes meaning will be more knowedlgeable not case in Senate
VP break tie in Senate not in house as a tie means vote no pass
How many bills passed in 177th Congress?
Just 365
Why does legislation struggle to be passed?
Weak powers of patronage so difficult to enforce party discipline (rare for large maj so need all votes possible)
All senate, house AND president have to agree but in Uk only need majority in HOC and force in HOL
Hyperparisanship
Supermajoity to overturn a presidential veto is hard to achieve
Bills have to be accepted by a committee even before they are debated - often significant amendments before reach the floor
How can a filibuster be ended?
60 votes preventing intent to filibuster
Cloture motion which needs a 2/3 vote
Why is filibuster less power?
Nuclear option to eliminate the use of it on executive branch and judicial nominees apart from Supreme Court
How are committees important in Congress"?
Often said where the real business gets done
Around 200 committes and sub committees
Specialist knowledge
Can vero legislation but not schedule timetable
What are important committes?
House Appropriations Committee (controls legislation over gov spending)
Senate Foreign Relations Committe (scrutinises executives foreign policy)
What are stengths of legilsative in Congess?
Some bipartisanship
Veto points ensure thorough scrutiny
Committes are experts and specialised
Presidential veto is a check against Congress
Ability to responsd to nation priorities
What are weaknesses of legilsative in Congess?
High rate of legislative failure
Partisanship and divided government lead to gricklock
Filibustering is a tool for minority obstruction
Complexity and multiple veto points are a barrier
Influence of lobbying as special interests