RDA Final

evidence-based treatment

A psychotherapy technique whose effectiveness has been supported by empirical research.

empiricism

The use of verifiable evidence as the basis for conclusions; collecting data systematically and using it to develop, support, or challenge a theory. Also called empirical method, empirical research.

theory

A statement or set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another.

hypothesis

A statement of the specific result the researcher expects to observe from a particular study, if the theory is accurate. Also called prediction.

data

A set of observations representing the values of some variable, collected from one or more research studies.

preregistered

A term referring to a study in which, before collecting any data, the researcher has stated publicly what the study’s outcome is expected to be.

replication

The process of conducting a study again to test whether the result is consistent.

weight of the evidence

A conclusion drawn from reviewing scientific literature and considering the proportion of studies that is consistent with a theory.

falsifiable

A feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will indicate that the theoryis wrong.

universalism

One of Merton’s four scientific norms, stating that scientific claims are evaluated according to their merit, independent of the researcher’s credentials or reputation. The same preestablished criteria apply to all scientists and all research. See also communality, disinterestedness, organized skepticism.

communality

One of Merton’s four scientific norms, stating that scientific knowledge is created by a community, and its findings belong to the community. See also universalism, disinterestedness, organized skepticism.

disinterestedness

One of Merton’s four scientific norms, stating that scientists strive to discover the truth whatever it is; they are not swayed by conviction, idealism, politics, or profit. See also universalism, communality, organized skepticism.

organized skepticism

One of Merton’s four scientific norms, stating that scientists question everything, including their own theories, widely accepted ideas, and “ancient wisdom.” See also universalism, communality, disinterestedness.

self-correcting

A process in which scientists make their research available for peer review, replication, and critique, with the goal of identifying and correcting errors in the research.

applied research

Research whose goal is to find a solution to a particular real-world problem. See also basic research, translational research.

basic research

Research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, without regard for direct application to practical problems. See also applied research, translational research.

translational research

Research that uses knowledge derived from basic research to develop and test solutions to real-world problems. See also applied research, basic research.

journal

A monthly or quarterly periodical containing peer-reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline or subdiscipline, written for a scholarly audience. Also called scientific journal.

journalism

News and commentary published or broadcast in the popular media and produced for a general audience.

comparison group

A group in an experiment whose levels on the independent variable differ from those of the treatment group in some intended and meaningful way. Also called comparison condition.

confound

A general term for a potential alternative explanation for a research finding, a threat to internal validity.

confederate

An actor who is directed by the researcher to play a specific role in a research study.

probabilistic

Describing the empirical method, stating that science is intended to explain a certain proportion (but not necessarily all) of the possible cases.

availability heuristic

A bias in intuition, in which people incorrectly estimate the frequency of something, relying predominantly on instances that easily come to mind rather than using all possible evidence in evaluating a conclusion.

present/present bias

A bias in intuition, in which people incorrectly estimate the relationship between an event and its outcome, focusing on times the event and outcome are present, while failing to consider evidence that is absent and harder to notice.

confirmation bias

The tendency to consider only the evidence that supports a hypothesis, including asking only the questions that will lead to the expected answer.

bias blind spot

The tendency for people to think that compared to others, they themselves are less likely to engage in biased reasoning.

empirical journal article

A scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a research study.

review journal article

An article summarizing all the studies that have been published in one research area.

meta-analysis

A way of mathematically averaging the effect sizes of all the studies that have tested the same variables to see what conclusion that whole body of evidence supports.

effect size

The magnitude, or strength, of a relationship between two or more variables.

paywalled

Term referring to a peer-reviewed academic journal that the general public must pay to access; only people who are members of subscribing institutions can access the content.

open access

Term referring to a peer-reviewed academic journal that anyone, even the general public, can read without paying for access.

disinformation

A news story, photo, or video deliberately created to be false or misleading.

variable

An attribute that varies, having at least two levels, or values. See also dependent variable, independent variable, manipulated variable, measured variable.

level

One of the possible variations, or values, of a variable. Also called condition

constant

An attribute that could potentially vary but that has only one level in the study in question.

measured variable

A variable in a study whose levels (values) are observed and recorded. See also manipulated variable

manipulated variable

A variable in an experiment that a researcher controls, such as by assigning participants to its different levels (values). See also measured variable.

construct

A variable of interest, stated at an abstract level, usually defined as part of a formal statement of a psychological theory. See also conceptual variable

conceptual variable

A variable of interest, stated at an abstract, or conversational, level. Also called construct. See also conceptual definition.

operational definition

The specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study. Also called operationalization, operational variable.

operational variable

The specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study. Also called operationalization, operational definition.

operationalize

To turn a conceptual definition of a variable into a specific measured variable or manipulated variable in order to conduct a research study.

claim

The argument a journalist, researcher, or scientist is trying to make.

frequency claim

A claim that describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable.

association claim

A claim about two variables, in which the value (level) of one variable is said to vary systematically with the value of another variable.

correlate

To occur or vary together (covary) systematically, as in the case of two variables. See also correlational study, covariance.

correlational study

A study that includes two or more variables, in which all of the variables are measured; can support an association claim.

positive association

An association in which high levels of one variable go with high levels of the other variable, and low levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable. Also called positive correlation. See also curvilinear association, negative association.

scatterplot

A graphical representation of an association, in which each dot represents one participant in the study measured on two variables.

negative association

An association in which high levels of one variable go with low levels of the other variable, and vice versa. Also called inverse association, negative correlation. See also curvilinear association, positive association, zero association.

zero association

A lack of systematic association between two variables. Also called zero correlation. See also curvilinear association, positive association, negative association.

causal claim

A claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the value of another variable.

validity

The appropriateness of a conclusion or decision. See also construct validity, external validity, internal validity, statistical validity.

construct validity

An indication of how well a variable was measured or manipulated in a study.

generalizability

The extent to which the subjects in a study represent the populations they are intended to represent; how well the settings in a study represent other settings or contexts.

external validity

An indication of how well the results of a study generalize to, or represent, individuals or contexts besides those in the study itself. See also generalizability.

statistical validity

The extent to which statistical conclusions derived from a study are accurate and reasonable. Also called statistical conclusion validity.

point estimate

A single estimate of some population value (such as a percentage, a correlation, or a difference) based on data from a sample.

confidence interval

A given range indicated by a lower and upper value that is designed to capture the population value for some point estimate (e.g. percentage, difference, or correlation); a high proportion of CIs will capture the true population value

margin of error of the estimate

In the context of a percentage estimate, an inferential statistic providing a range of values that has a high probability of containing the true population value. See also confidence interval.

covariance

he degree to which two variables go together. Also one of three criteria for establishing a causal claim, which states that, in a study’s results, the proposed causal variable must vary systematically with changes in the proposed outcome variable. See also internal validity, temporal precedence.

temporal precedence

One of three criteria for establishing a causal claim, stating that the proposed causal variable comes first in time, before the proposed outcome variable. See also covariance, internal validity.

internal validity

One of three criteria for establishing a causal claim; a study’s ability to rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship between two variables. Also called third‐variable criterion. See also covariance, temporal precedence.

experiment

A study in which at least one variable is manipulated and another is measured.

independent variable

In an experiment, a variable that is manipulated. In a multiple‐regression analysis, a predictor variable used to explain variance in the criterion variable. See also dependent variable.

dependent variable

In an experiment, the variable that is measured. In a multiple‐regression analysis, the single outcome, or criterion variable the researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting. Also called outcome variable. See also independent variable.

random assignment

The use of a random method (e.g., flipping a coin) to assign participants into different experimental groups.

debrief

To inform participants afterward about a study’s true nature, details, and hypotheses.

principle of respect for persons

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that research participants should be treated as autonomous agents and that certain groups deserve special protection.

informed consent

The right of research participants to learn about a research project, know its risks and benefits, and decide whether to participate.

principle of beneficence

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report stating that researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to promote their well‐being.

anonymous study

A research study in which identifying information is not collected, thereby completely protecting the identity of participants.

confidential study

A research study in which identifying information is collected, but protected from disclosure to people other than the researchers.

principle of justice

An ethical principle from the Belmont Report calling for a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it.

institutional review board (IRB)

A committee responsible for ensuring that research using human participants is conducted ethically.

deception

The withholding of some details of a study from participants (deception through omission) or the act of actively lying to them (deception through commission).

data fabrication

A form of research misconduct in which a researcher invents data that fit the hypothesis.

data falsification

A form of research misconduct in which a researcher influences a study’s results, perhaps by deleting observations from a data set or by influencing participants to act in the hypothesized way.

plagiarism

Representing the ideas or words of others as one’s own; a form of research misconduct

conceptual definition

A researcher’s definition of a variable at the theoretical level. Also called construct.

self‐report measure

A method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview.

observational measure

A method of measuring a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors.

physiological measure

A method of measuring a variable by recording biological data.

categorical variable

A variable whose levels are categories (e.g., male and female). Also called nominal variable.

quantitative variable

A variable whose values can be recorded as meaningful numbers.

ordinal scale

A quantitative measurement scale whose levels represent a ranked order, and in which distances between levels are not equal (e.g., order of finishers in a race). See also interval scale, ratio scale.

interval scale

A quantitative measurement scale that has no true zero, and in which the numerals represent equal intervals (distances) between levels (e.g., temperature in degrees). See also ordinal scale, ratio scale.

ratio scale

A quantitative measurement scale in which the numerals have equal intervals and the value of zero truly means none of the variable being measured. See also interval scale, ordinal scale.

reliability

The consistency of the results of a measure.

validity

The appropriateness of a conclusion or decision. See also construct validity, external validity, internal validity, statistical validity.

test‐retest reliability

The consistency in results every time a measure is used.

interrater reliability

The degree to which two or more coders or observers give consistent ratings of a set of targets.

internal reliability

In a measure that contains several items, the consistency in a pattern of answers, no matter how a question is phrased. Also called internal consistency.

correlation coefficient r

A single number, ranging from Ð1.0 to 1.0, that indicates the strength and direction of an association between two variables.

slope direction

The upward, downward, or neutral slope of the cluster of data points in a scatterplot.

strength

A description of an association indicating how closely the data points in a scatterplot cluster along a line of best fit drawn through them.

average inter‐item correlation (AIC)

A measure of internal reliability for a set of items; it is the mean of all possible correlations computed between each item and the others.

Cronbach's alpha

A correlation‐based statistic that measures a scale’s internal reliability. Also called coefficient alpha.