Patho Exam 1

What is hemiplegia?

Paralysis on one side of the body.

What is paraplegia?

Paralysis on the lower half of the body.

What is quadriplegia?

Paralysis of the trunk and all four limbs.

What happens to inactive muscles?

Lose strength and mass, muscle atrophy.

What happens with loss of bone mass?

Lack of weight-bearing activity and muscle action, reduces osteoblasts activity, and osteoclast activity continues.

What are tendons and ligaments?

Required for movement and they connect the tendons and ligaments to the bone.

What are some cutaneous effects?

Decreased circulation, pressure injuries are more common.

What are some effects of prolonged immobilization in cardiovascular?

Reduced venous return and cardiac output, orthostatic hypotension, and reflex controls may not normalize.

What is stasis and how does it effect our cardiovascular system?

Blood pooling and edema. Promotes thrombus formation in veins and blood clotting can occur.

What are some respiratory effects of immobilization?

Deep breathing and coughing more difficult, respiration slow and shallow, increase secretions in the lungs.

What are some digestive system effects of immobilization?

Decreased appetite, obesity, constipation.

What are some urinary system effects of immobilization?

Stasis of urine, infection, and renal calculi.

What is a stressor?

Factor that creates significant change in body function. can be internal or external.

What is included in the GAS (general adaptation syndrome)?

Alarm stage, resistance stage, and exhaustion. If the body stays in fight or flight mode, the body will get used to it.

What are some significant effects of stress?

Elevated BP and increased HR, arousal of the central nervous system, decreased immune responses, increased blood glucose levels, and bronchodilation and increased ventilation.

What are positive stressors called and what are they?

Eustress. Includes motivation, creativity, efficiency, attention and focus.

What is negative stress called and what are they?

Distress. Includes too much work, exam nervousness.

What are some acute problems with stress?

Headaches, physical and emotional distress, prolonged vasoconstriction, stomatitis, reoccurring diseases.

What happens if you have severe or prolonged stress?

Can cause dysfunction, increased wear and tear on tissues, exhaustion of resources, and exacerbation of chronic conditions.

What are some ways to cope with stress?

Adequate rest and a healthy diet, regular exercise, counseling, relaxation techniques.

How many pairs of chromosomes are there?

23 pairs with one pair of sex chromosomes.

What is a genotype?

Actual genetic information carried by individual. All cells except gametes of the individual have some genotype. Not all genes are expressed in all cells.

What is a phenotype?

Expression of genes like appearance and characteristics.

How are disorders present at birth caused?

Genetic/inherited or developmental disorders.

What causes genetic disorders?

Single-gene trait, chromosomal defect, and multifactorial.

How are single gene disorders classified?

In inheritance patterns like recessive, dominant (only need 1 gene), X-linked recessive. A single gene controls a specific function.

What causes autosomal recessive disorders?

Both parents must pass on the allele for disorder. Parents may be unaffected, termed carriers. Male and female children are affected equally.

What does homozygous mean?

You have the trait and it is expressed.

What does heterozygous mean?

You have the trait but it is not expressed.

What causes autosomal dominant disorders?

Inheritance of one allele causes disorder and only one parent needs to carry the allele. If there are no carriers, the unaffected person doesn’t transmit the disorder.

What is delayed lethal genotype?

You have the disorder but it will come later in life.

What causes x-linked dominant disorders?

Heterozygous males and females are affected. It has reduced penetrance in females.

What is fragile x syndrome?

Most common cause of mental retardation. Includes cognitive deficit, learning disorders, and behavioral problems.

What causes x-linked recessive disorders?

Allele carried on X chromosome but not the Y. Manifested in heterozygous males lacking the matching unaffected gene on the Y. Heterozygous females are carries, and inheritance appear to skip generations.

What is Down syndrome caused by?

Has an extra chromosome in pair 21

What is turner syndrome caused by?

Only one complete X chromosome instead of two. Affects females and will have a short stature and infertility.

What is Klinefelter syndrome?

Has an extra X chromosome. Can cause infertility and a tall stature with learning disabilities.

What are multifactorial disorders?

Genetic influences combines with environmental factors. Cleft palate, congenital hip dislocation, congenital heart disease, type 2 diabetes.

What does the acronym TORCH mean and what is it from?

T-toxoplasmosis, O-other, R-rubella, C-cytomegalovirus, H-herpes. It is part of the developmental disorders.

What are characteristics of down syndrome?

Small head, round face, slanted eyes, small hands, short stature, muscles tend to be hypotonic, loose joints, delayed developmental stages.

What is senescence?

Period of life from old age to death.

What is the aging process?

Rate and effects of aging vary among individuals. May not match chronological age and rate depends on genetic makeup, health status, cardiovascular fitness.

What happens to hormones with old age?

With the exception of estrogen and testosterone, the level of hormone secretion remains consistent. Number of tissue receptors decrease.

What happens to your vision with old age?

Lens become less flexible, lens tend to become yellow and cataracts develop, night vision reduced, color vision reduces, vascular degeneration may affect retina.

What are some urinary changes in old age?

Reduced kidney function, diminished ability to compensate for rapid electrolyte acid levels, reduced capacity to secrete drugs into urine, reduced control of bladder function.

What are infections important with old age?

They have delayed healing

What does polypharmacy mean?

They are on multiple medications.

What is the first line of defense in inflammation?

Blocks invaders. Mechanical barriers like unbroken skin and mucous membranes are used.

What is the second line of defense in inflammation?

Attacks the germs after they enter our body through phagocytosis and inflammation.

What does phagocytosis mean?

When the WBC engulf the bacteria and kill it.

What is the third line of defense in inflammation?

Specific antibodies are used. Lymphocyte B cells make antibodies and T cells go into fight mode. This is cell-mediated immunity.

What is the physiology of inflammation?

Protctive mechanism and important basic concept in patho. Signs and symptoms serve as a warning sign and this is not the same as infection, although it can cause inflammation.

What are some causes of inflammation?

Infection, direct physical damage, caustic chemicals, extremes of heat or cold, allergic reactions, foreign bodies, and ischemia and infarction.

What is acute inflammation?

Has a fast onset and is very intense. Time varies with specific cause.

What are the local effects of inflammation?

Redness and warmth, swelling/edema, pain, and loss of function.

What is serous exudate?

Watery looking drainage. Has small amounts of proteins and WBC’s.

What is fibrinous exudate?

Thick and sticky, has a high fibrin cell content and increases risk of scar tissue.

What is purulent exudate?

Thick, yellow-green and contains many WBC, cell debris, and microorganisms. This often indicates bacterial infections. Think of this a pus.

What is hemorrhagic exudate?

Bloody and is due to blood vessel drainage.

What are some systemic effects of inflammation?

Mild fever (pyrexia), malaise, fatigue, anorexia, and headaches.

How can sepsis and septic shock occur with inflammation?

Severe systemic inflammatory response from an uncontrolled release of cytokines that cause widespread vasodilation, capillary leakage.

What are potential acute inflammation complications?

Can be located or systemic. For infections, microorganisms can more easily penetrate the tissue. Skeletal muscle spasm can also occur.

What is chronic inflammation?

Long-term inflammation and can follow an acute episode. May develop gradually and there is less swelling and exudate. Continued tissue destruction occurs.

What are potential chronic inflammation complications?

Deep ulcers may result from severe or prolonged inflammation. Think of it as long-term destruction and scarring.

What are microorganisms?

Small living forms and many can grow in artificial culture medium.

What is bacteria?

Unicellular organisms and do not require living tissue for survival. They can reproduce and have a complex wall structure.

What are spores?

Formed by several species and can survive long periods of time in spore state. Dormant forms can last years in harsh conditions and they have highly resistant to heat and disinfectants.

What are viruses?

Small intracellular parasites and has a protein coat. Contains nucleic acid and has either DNA or RNA, but never both! HAS TO LIVE INSIDE A HOST TO LIVE!

What is an active viral infection?

Virus attaches to the host cell and viral DNA or RNA takes control of the cell. They use hosts cells to synthesize viral proteins and nucleic acids.

What does lysis mean?

When the cell bursts open. “breaking out of the cell”.

What are latent viral infections?

Virus enters the cell and causes an initial infection, but then lays dormant in the body. They never go away, meaning you have it forever.

What are fungi?

Eukaryotic organisms and found on animals, plants, humans, food. Only a few are pathogenic, meaning they can spread systemically. Antibiotics DO NOT work on this type of infection.

What are helminths?

Parasites and they feed off the host. They are not microorganisms and enter the body through skin or by ingestion.

What is resident flora and where can it be found?

Resident population of mixed microorganisms and are naturally occurring. Can be found on/in the skin, nasal cavity, mouth, and gut.

What does sporadic mean?

Not very common and is in a single individual, rare cases.

What does endemic mean?

Continuous transmission within a population, constantly present, but is concentrated in one place.

What does epidemic mean?

Higher than normal transmission or spread to outside areas.

What does pandemic?

Transmission has occurred on most continents. Think of COVID-19.

What is the order of the infection chain of events?

Infectious agent, reservoir, portal of exit, mode of transmission, portal of entry, and susceptible host.

What is contact transmission?

Get it through touch. Can be direct, person to person, or indirect, object to person.

What is droplet transmission?

Respiratory secretions are expelled from infected person. They can only travel a short distance.

What is airborne (aerosol) transmission?

Involves small particles from respiratory tract and is suspended in the air. Can travel way further than droplets.

What is vector-borne transmission?

Insect or animal is the intermediate host. Mosquitoes, ticks, bugs.

What are some factors that decrease host resistance in infection?

Age, pregnancy, genetic susceptibility, chronic disease, inflammation or trauma, impaired inflammatory responses.

What is the incubation period of infection?

Time between entry of organism into the body and appearance of clinical signs of disease. The infection is growing.

What is the prodromal period of infection?

Starts to feel symptoms and can be very contagious in this stage.

What is the acute illness period of infection?

Infectious disease develops fully.

What are some local signs and symptoms of infection?

Pain, swelling, redness, warmth, exudate.

What are some systemic signs and symptoms of infection?

Fever, fatigue, weakness, headache, nausea.

What is the immune system?

It is responsible for body defenses. There is nonspecific response and specific response.

What is included in the lymphoid structures in the immune system?

Lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, lymphatic circulation, and intestinal lymphoid tissue.

What is included in the immune cells in the immune system?

Lymphocytes (B,T, phagocytes, and neutrophils) and macrophages.

What are the chemical mediators in the immune system?

Histamine and interleukins.

What are antibodies?

Defenses that are built by B cells and it happens in the bone marrow (think B=bone). They neutralize harmful pathogens and works out a way to kill them.

What are antigens?

These are the pathogens that enter the body.

What is humoral immunity?

Antibodies are produced to protect the body.

What is cell-mediated immunity (CMI)?

Lymphocytes programmed to attack non-self cells to protect the body. T cells attack first hand and works best against viruses and cancer cells.

What is IgG?

Greatest amount and most commonly found in the blood and can cross the placenta.

What is IgM?

First responder and it is the first to increase the immune system.

What is IgA?

This is found in airways and secretions like tears, saliva, and colostrum.