Capstone test

Nonprobability sampling

a type of sampling in which the sampling elements are selected using something other than a mathematically random process (without probability)

Haphazard sampling

Get cases in any manner thats convenient

Quota sampling

get a preset number of cases in each of several predetermined categories that will reflect the diversity of the population, using haphazard methods

Purposive sampling

get all possible cases that fit particular criteria, using various methods

Sequential sampling

get cases until there is no additional information or new characteristics (often used with sampling methods)

Deviant sampling

when a researcher purposefully selects unusual or nonconforming cases to gain insight into social processes

Theoretical sampling

when the sample size is determined when the data reaches theoretical saturation

Probability sampling

sampling strategies that give every subject in the population the same likelihood of being selected

sampling element

the unit that is being studied

sampling ratio

the number of cases in the sample divided by the number of cases in the population or the sampling frame, or the proportion of the population in the sample

Sampling frame

a list of case sin a population

sampling error

how much a sample deviates from being representative of the population

margin of error

an estimate about the amount of sampling error that exists in a survey result

simple random sampling

a type of random sample in which a researcher creates a sampling frame and uses a pure random process to select cases. Each sampling element in the population will have an equal probability of being selected

sampling distribution

a distribution created by drawing random samples from the same population

sampling distribution of sample means

the distribution of all possible sample means, calculated from repeated samples of a fixed size taken from a population

central limit theorem

a law-like mathematical relationship stating that whenever many samples are drawn from a population and plotted, a normal distribution is formed, and the centre of such a distribution for a variable is equal to its population parameter

confidence interval

a range of values, usually a little higher and lower than a specific value found in a sample, within which a researcher has a specified and high degree of confidence that the population parameter lies

systematic sampling

a type of sample in which a researcher selects every kth case in the sampling frame using a sampling interval

sampling interval

the inverse of the sampling ratio, which is used in systematic sampling to select cases. the fixed distance between selected elements in systematic sampling

stratified sampling

a type of random sample in which the researcher first identifies a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories, then uses a random selection methods to select cases for each category

cluster sampling

a type of random sample that uses multiple stages and is often used to cover wide geographic areas in which aggregated units and randomly selected samples are then drawn from the sampled aggregate units, or clusters.

probability proportionate to size (PPS)

an adjustment made in cluster sampling when each cluster does not have the same number of sampling elements

hidden populations

people who engage in deviant or concealed activities and who are difficult to locate and study

how can sample sizes be determined

by basing them on past experiments, statistical equations or random sampling processes

inferential statistics

a branch of applied mathematics based on a random sample. Lets researcher make precise statements about the level of confidence they have in the results being equal to the population parameter

Survey research

a quantitative social research technique in which one systematically asks many people the same questions and then records and analyzes their answers

interview schedule

the name of a survey research questionnaire in person or over the phone

Questionnaire

a tool used in survey research consisting of a list of questions asked to a respondent

prestige bias

a problem in survey research question writing that occurs when a highly respected group or individual is linked to one of the answers

double-barrelled questions

a research question that asks more than one question, making it unclear whether you should answer both questions or one or the other

leading question

a question that leads the respondent to choose one response over the other by its wording

threatening questions

a type of survey question in which respondents are likely to cover up or lie about their true behaviour or beliefs because they fear a loss of self-image or may appear to be engaging in undesirable or deviant behavior

social desirability bias

a bias in survey research in which respondents give a normative response or a socially acceptable answer rather than giving a truthful answer

knowledge questions

question that test a specific part of the respondents knowledge to find out how much a respondent knows about a topic

contingency question

a question with two or more parts in survey research. The answer to the first question determines which or two different questions a respondent receives next

open-ended question

a type of research question in which respondents are free to offer any answer they wish to the question i.e. what's your favourite colour

closed-ended question

a type of survey research in which respondents must choose from a fixed set of answers

respondent fatigue

the tendency for respondents to lose interest in participating in research if they perceive their participation to be taking too long or requiring too much effort

partially open question

a type of survey research question in which respondents are given a fixed set of answers to choose from, but an other category is provided if they want to give their own answer

standard format question

a type of survey research in which the answer categories fail to include "no opinion" or "don't know"

quasi-filter question

a type of survey question that includes the answer choice "no opinion" or "don't know"

full-filter question

a type of survey research question in which respondents are first asked whether they have an opinion or know about a topic, then only the respondents with an opinion or knowledge are asked a specific question on the topic

floaters

respondents who lack a belief or opinion but who give an answer anyway if asked in a survey research question. Often, their answers are inconsistent

response set bias

an effect in survey research when respondents tend to agree (or disagree) with every survey question in a series rather than thinking through their answer to each question

wording effect

an effect that occurs when a specific item or word used in a survey research question affects how respondents answer the question

order effect

an effect in survey research in which respondents hear some specific questions before others and the earlier questions affect their answers to later questions

funnel sequence

a way to order survey research questions from general to specific

context effect

an effect in survey research when an overall tone or set of topics heard by a respondent affects how they interpret the meaning of subsequent questions

cover sheet

one or more pages at the beginning of a questionnaire with information about an interview or respondent

matrix question

a type of survey research in which a set of questions is listed in a compact form together, all questions sharing the same set of answer categories

probe

a follow-up question in survey research used by an interviewer to have a respondent clarify or elaborate on an incomplete or inappropriate answer

psuedosurvey

when someone who has little or no real interest in learning information from a respondent uses the survey format to try to persuade someone to do something