Chapter 11 & 12 Congress and The Presidency

Bicameralism

The system of having two chambers within one legislative body, like the House and Senate in the U.S. Congress

Pork Barrel

Legislative appropriations that benefit specific constituents, created with the aim of helping local representatives win reelection

Descriptive Representation

: When a member of Congress shares the characteristics (such as gender, race, religion, or ethnicity) of his or her constituents

Substantive Representation

When a member of Congress represents constituents’ interests and policy concerns

Trustee Model

Model of representation in which a member of Congress represents constituents’ interests while also taking into account national, collective, and moral concerns that sometimes cause the member to vote against the preference of a majority of constituents

Delegate Model

Model of representation in which a member of Congress loyally represents constituents’ direct interests

Politico

A member of Congress who acts as a delegate on issues that constituents care about (such as immigration reform) and as a trustee on more-complex or less-salient issues (such as some foreign policy or regulatory matters)

Casework

Assistance provided by members of Congress to their constituents in solving problems with the federal bureaucracy or addressing other specific concerns

Electoral connection

The idea that congressional behavior is centrally motivated by members’ desire for reelection

Incumbency Advantage

The relative infrequency with which members of Congress are defeated in their attempts for reelection

Redistricting

Re-drawing the geographic boundaries of legislative districts.

Apportionment

The process of assigning the 435 seats in the House to the states based on increases or decreases in state population

Baker v. Carr

The case that established the principle of “one person, one vote,” ruling that legislative districts with dramatically different populations violated the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment

Gerrymandering

Attempting to use the process of re-drawing district boundaries to benefit a political party, protect incumbents, or change the proportion of minority voters in a district

Gridlock

An inability to enact legislation because of partisan conflict within Congress or between Congress and the president

Logrolling

Form of reciprocity in which members of Congress support bills that they otherwise might not vote for in exchange for other members’ votes on bills that are very important to them

Earmarks

Federally funded local projects attached to bills passed through Congress

Seniority

The informal congressional norm of choosing the member who has served the longest on a particular committee to be the committee chair

Speaker of the House

The elected leader of the House of Representatives

Majority Leader

The elected head of the party holding the majority of seats in the House or Senate

Whip system

An organization of House leaders who work to disseminate information and promote party unity in voting on legislation

Minority Leader

The elected head of the party holding the minority of seats in the House or Senate

President Pro Tempore

A largely symbolic position usually held by the most senior member of the majority party in the Senate

Roll Call Vote

Recorded vote on legislation; members may vote yes, no, abstain, or present

Party Vote

Vote in which the majority of one party opposes the position of the majority of the other party

Party Unity

Extent to which members of Congress in the same party vote together on party votes

Ideological Polarization

Division between conservative Republicans and liberal Democrats in Congress means there’s almost no overlap between the 2 parties for general ideological positions. This makes it more difficult to compromise and pass bipartisan legislation

Standing Committee

Committees that are a permanent part of the House or Senate structure, holding more importance and authority than other committees

Select Committees

Committees in the House or Senate created to address a specific issue for one or two terms

Joint Committees

Committees that contain members of both the House and Senate but have limited authority

Conference Committees

Temporary committees created to negotiate differences between the House and Senate versions of a piece of legislation that has passed through both chambers

Distributive Theory

Idea that members of Congress will join committees that best serve the interests of their district and that committee members will support one another’s legislation

Informational Theory

Idea that having committees in Congress made up of experts to ensure well-informed policy decisions

Markup

One of the steps through which a bill becomes a law, in which the final wording of the bill is determined

Veto

The president’s rejection of a bill that has been passed by Congress. A veto can be overridden by a two-thirds vote in both the House and Senate (10 days to decide)

Pocket Veto

The automatic death of a bill passed by the House and Senate when the president fails to sign the bill in the last 10 days of a legislative session

Discharge Petition

Mechanism for forcing a standing committee to report a bill to the floor in the U.S. House (and some state legislatures). A majority of members must sign the petition to force a bill out of committee

Omnibus Legislation

Large bills that often cover several topics and may contain extraneous, or pork-barrel, projects

Unanimous Consent Agreement

Reached by party leaders in the Senate to limit debate and the consideration of amendments on legislation

Cloture

Procedure where the Senate can limit the amount of time spent debating a bill (cutting off a filibuster if a super majority of 60 senators agree

Filibuster

Tactic used by senators to block a bill by continuing to hold the floor and speak- under the Senate rule of unlimited debate- until the bill’s supporters back down

Hold

An objection to considering a measure on the Senate floor

House Rules Committee

Resolutions governing the amending process and length of debate come from this committee. These rules must be adopted by majority vote of the entire House

Closed Rules

Conditions placed on a legislative debate by the House Rules Committee prohibiting amendments to a bill

Modified Rules

Conditions placed on a legislative debate by the House Rules Committee allowing certain amendments to a bill while barring others

Committee of the Whole

Parliamentary mechanism for initial consideration of legislation and expediting debate and voting on amendments in the U.S. House. Compromised of all members of the House and amendments are considered under a 5-minute rule

Constitutional Authority

Powers derived from the provisions of the Constitution that outline the president’s role in government

Statutory Authority

Powers derived from laws enacted by Congress that add to the powers given to the president in the Constitution

Vesting Clause

Article II, Section 1, of the Constitution, which states: “The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America,” making the president both the head of government and the head of state

Head of Government

One role of the president, through which he or she has authority over the executive branch

Head of State

One role of the president, through which he or she represents the country symbolically and politically

Appointment Power

The president’s ability to name ambassadors, senior bureaucrats, and federal judges, subject in some cases to Senate confirmation

Recess Appointment

Selection by the president of a person to be an ambassador or the head of a department while the Senate is not in session, thereby bypassing Senate approval. Unless approved by a subsequent Senate vote, recess appointees serve only to the end of the congressional term

Executive Orders

Proclamations made by the president that change government policy without congressional approval

War Powers Resolution

a federal law intended to check the U.S. president's power to commit the United States to an armed conflict without the consent of the U.S. Congress

Executive Agreement

agreement between the executive branch and a foreign government, which acts as a treaty but does not require Senate approval

Bargaining

Negotiation between the president and members of congress over budgets and the details of legislative proposals

State of the Union

An annual speech in which the president addresses Congress to report on the condition of the country and to recommend policies

Pocket Veto

A president’s ability to veto a piece of legislation by taking no action on it (possible only when Congress is not in session)

Executive Privilege

The right to keep executive branch conversations and correspondence confidential from legislative and judicial branches

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

The group of policy-related offices that serve as support staff to the president

Cabinet

The group of 15 executive department heads who implement the president’s agenda in their respective positions.

Unilateral action (presidential)

Any policy decision made and acted upon by the president and presidential staff without the explicit approval or consent of Congress.

Unitary Executive Theory

The idea that the vesting clause of the Constitution gives the president the authority to issue orders and policy directives that cannot be undone by Congress.

Signing Statement

A document issued by the president when signing a bill into law explaining his or her interpretation of the law, which often differs from the interpretation of Congress, in an attempt to influence how the law will be implemented.

Presidential Approval Rating

The percentage of Americans who think that the president is doing a good job in office.

Going Public

A president’s use of speeches and other public communications to appeal directly to citizens about issues the president would like the House and Senate to act on

Bully Pulpit

The president’s ability to speak directly to the American public in support of his policy agenda and decisions