bio 1243

exam 3 study guide

what is the animal system hierarchy

cells -> tissues -> organs -> organ systems

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* form follows function

form follows function

* the structure commonly reflects closely to its function
* example: penguins have streamlined bodies (helping it swim)

multicellular organisms

* animals are multicellular organisms
* makes it possible for animals to attain much larger sizes and much greater physiological complexity than single-celled organisms
* increased size and complexity bring many benefits

organization of animal bodies

cell

tissue

organ

organ systems

cell

smallest unit of organization in all organisms

tissue

group of cells that share similar structure and function

organ

group of tissues that perform specialized functions (most organs include the stomach, contains all four tissue types)

organ systems

groups of organs that work together to accomplish one or a few related physiological functions

types of animal tissues

connective tissue

epithelial tissue

muscle tissue

nervous tissue

connective tissue

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* composed of cells interspersed throughout a matrix
* %%provides structure and support%%, anchors cells and regulates communication between cells
* %%most abundant type of tissue in the body%%

epithelial tissue

* composed of cells that cover and line most surfaces of animal bodies


* forms the skin and the lining of the lungs, digestive tract, and blood vessels

muscle tissue

* composed of cells that can contract
* generates movement, pumps fluid, and moves substances

nervous tissue

* composed of specialized cells that sent and receive electrical signals
* stores and transmits information

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collective tissue structure

* collection of cells arranged within a extracellular matrix that gives shape, structure, and support to other body tissues
* fibroblasts: cells that produce and secrete proteins collagen and elastin (present in all connective tissue except blood)
* matrix: non-living, extracellular(outside) mass of protein fibers and surrounding liquid, jelly-like, or solid material

connective tissue proper

* soft and flexible extracellular matrix
* loose connective tissue
* semi-fluid, flexible matrix
* cushions, lubricates, and insulates other tissues
* example: soft padding under the skin
* dense connective tissue
* matrix tightly packed with lots of collagen fibers
* connects bones to muscles and other bones
* example: tendons and ligaments

special connective tissue

* bone
* matrix is hardened with calcium into a solid material
* cartilage
* strong but flexible matric rich in protein fibers
* blood
* liquid matrix (plasma) consists primarily of water
* transports gases and other substances throughout the body

epithelial tissue structure

* sheet-like tissue that separates different parts of the body, plays important role in protection, transport and secretion

epithelial protection

* acts as a barrier between the inside and outside of an organism
* keeps fluids from leaking into or out of tissue

epithelial transport

regulates the movement of nutrients and other molecules into and out of body tissue

epithelial secretion

* can form exocrine glands, which secrete products such as saliva, sweat, and mucus
* can form endocrine glands, which secrete hormones

muscle tissue structure

* enables movement
* types of muscle: skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle

skeletal muscle

* generates most of the movement seen in animals (conscious and unconscious control)
* individual skeletal muscle cells are called muscle fibers
* usually attached to bones and is responsible for movement

cardiac muscle

* muscle in the heart that pumps blood through the body (%%unconscious control%%)
* l%%ocated only in the heart%%

smooth muscle

* generates slow and rhythmic contractions that can gradually move food or other substances through the body, or alter blood pressure (%%under unconscious control and can generate contractions without nervous simulation%%)
* found in walls surrounding blood vessels, the stomach and intestines, the bladder, and other organs and internal tubes within body

nervous tissue structure

there are two types of neuron tissue cells: neurons and glial cells (neuroglia)

neurons

* cells that can receive and transmit signals
* dendrites: receive signals from the external environment or other neurons
* cell body: contains the nucleus and other cellular machinery
* axon: single projection from the cell body that transmits impulses away from cell body

glial cells (neuroglia)

%%helper cells%%

%%assist neurons by insulating, protecting, and regulating their chemical environment%%, holding them in place, destroying pathogens, and providing nutrients and oxygen

organization of the vertebrate nervous system

divided into two systems: central nervous system (cns) and peripheral nervous system (pns)

central nervous system

composed of cells (including neurons) of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system

composed of sensory and motor neurons and associated glial cells

organ systems specialized tasks

* tissues are organized into organs, which operate together in organ systems to achieve a common function
* %%supports growth, development, maintenance, and reproduction of entire organism%%

circulatory system

transports gases, nutrients, waste products, hormones, and immune system cells throughout the body

* heart
* vein
* artery

respiratory system

provides a site for gas exchange between external environment and organisms circulatory system

digestive system

disassembles and absorbs food so the body can aacquire the nutrients it needs to function

immune and lymphatic system

attacks pathogens that threatens the body and plays a supporting role in circulation by recycling fluid that leaks from the circulatory system

endocrine system

regulates body activities by releasing hormones that travel through vessels in the circulatory system to reach target cells

male reproductive system

produces sperm and delivers them to the female reproductive system where fertilization may occur

female reproductive system

produces eggs and provides an environment that can nurture a developing embryo and fetus if fertilization occurs

nervous system

acts as the control center of the body and interprets, stores and transmits information, using electrical impulses and chemical signals

urinary/excretory system

purifies the blood by filtering out wastes and transports wastes out of the body

integumentary system

provides protection by forming a barrier between the inside and outside of an organism and can aid in the secretion and transport of molecules

skeletal system

supports and protects the body and internal organs, manufactures blood cells, and provides a surface for muscle attachment, creating a foundation for movement

muscular system

generates force through contraction, which enables movement of the body and of blood, food, and other substances throughout the body

homeostasis

body’s use of physical and chemical processes to maintain a consistent internal environment

* disruptions such as hyperthermia, hypothermia, blood sugar levels, blood pH and tissue concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide may lead to cell tissue, or organ damage, and even death

how does homeostasis work

negative and positive feedback systems

* negative feedback: loop sensors detect change in the internal environment and trigger effectors to oppose or reduce the change
* perturbation away from set point results in corrective action

thermoregulation

temperature control is a component of homeostasis

* physical methods
* walrus and the thick coat
* behavioral methods
* african ground squirrel uses tail as shade
* physiological methods
* dingo’s panting
* cellular methods
* human infants have brown fat that produces energy instead of heat

osmoregulation

* gain
* drinking
* eating
* osmosis
* cellular respiration
* loss
* urination
* defecation
* evaporation
* osmosis

kidneys

* %%osmoregulation%%
* %%primary organ in vertebrates regulating water balance and solute concentrations%%
* regulates water balance and solute concentration in body fluids
* filters blood
* removes potentially harmful ions and waste products, excreting them in urine

circulation and respiration

transporting fuel, raw materials, and gases into and out of and around the body

functions of the circulatory system

transport

temperature regulation

protection

circulatory transport

circulatory system %%transports oxygen, nutrients, waste products, immune system cells, and hormones in the blood throughout the bodyclo%%

circulatory regulation

circulatory system helps to %%maintain body temperature within the optimum range%% for metabolic functioning

circulatory protection

circulatory system contains a variety of cells and chemicals that %%contribute to the individuals’ defenses against infections by pathogens%%

closed circulatory system

blood is contained within vessels that separate it from interstitial fluid

* muscular heart propels blood through vessels to tissues throughout the body
* occurs in all vertebrates

types of blood vessels

arteries

capillaries

veins

arteries

vessel that %%carry blood away from the heart and to the capillaries%%

* endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue

capillaries

tiny porous vessels that bring blood close to tissue enabling the %%diffusion of gases, nutrients, and other molecules into and out of the tissue%%

* single later of endothelial cells

veins

vessels that %%carry blood away from the capillaries and back towards the heart%%

* endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue

vertebrates

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* several different types of closed circulatory systems
* fishes (two chambered heart with single circuit of flow)
* variations evolved with adaptations to land

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chambers of the human heart

%%blood flows through four chambers of the human heart%%

circulatory systems loops

* pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit

heart sounds

created by the closing of the heart valves

* “lub” preventing blood flowing back into atria
* “dub” preventing blood flowing back into ventricles

structure of blood vessels

blood flows out of and back to the heart of blood vessels

what is blood

* %%salty, protein-rich mixture of cells and fluid%%
* respiratory gases
* vitamins and minerals
* nutrients
* hormones
* components of the immune system
* metabolic wastes

what makes up blood

* plasma (55%)
* salty water (90% of plasma)
* variety of molecules, including metabolites and wastes, salts and ions, and hundreds of plasma proteins
* packed cells (45%)
* red blood cells (95% of the packed cells)
* white blood cells
* platelets (cell fragments)

red blood cells

* transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body
* flexible disks containing few organelles
* packed full of hemoglobin

white blood cells

* destroys pathogens and foreign organisms in the blood stream
* several different types

platelets

* slow blood loss by initiating the constriction of blood vessels and formation of a clot
* composed of small pieces of cytoplasm
* contains no organelles

cardiovascular disease

* leading cause of death in the united states
* atherosclerosis
* cholesterol forming fatty plaque in blood stream
* arteriosclerosis
* calcium deposited in plaque, causing it to harden
* heart attack
* interruption in the flow of blood though one of the coronary arteries

ldl (bad cholesterol)

* low-density lipoprotein

tends to adhere to artery walls, where it can initiate buildup of dangerous plaques

hdl (good cholesterol)

* high-density lipoprotein

tends to remove cholesterol from arteries and deliver it to liver cells, where it can be broken down

lymphatic system

* plays supporting role in circulation
* runs close to the circulatory system throughout the body and platys a supporting role in the process of circulation
* failure in system results in fluid accumulation in lower extremities

functions of lymphatic system

recycling

fighting illness

retrieving nutrients

recycling

lymphatic system recycles fluid and proteins that diffuse from the blood capillaries during circulation back into the blood stream

fighting illness

white-blood-cell packed lymph nodes remove dangerous materials including bacteria, cancer cells, and viruses

retrieving nutrients

little projections that extend into the small intestine absorb lipids from the digestive tract and shuttle them to the blood stream

functions of the respiratory system

acquires the oxygen necessary for cellular respiration

* removes carbon dioxide, a waste production of cell functions
* nose, mouth, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchiole, pharynx, and lungs

alveoli

gas exchange is happening here

* delicate, thin-walled elastic sacs at the end of the bronchioles where air meets the blood vessel
* carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli and out of the body as exhalation occurs
* inhaled oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood
* over 300 million

hemoglobin

* oxygen is transported while bound
* each molecule of hemoglobin is a tangled mass of four polypeptide chains with four molecules of iron that create four “seats” to which oxygen can attach
* picks up oxygen from lungs and transports it to tissues
* binds and releases oxygen

high partial pressure of oxygen

hemoglobin encounters a high partial pressure of oxygen such as in inhaled air in the lungs, hemoglobin gets pack with oxygen

low partial pressure of oxygen

hemoglobin encounters a low partial pressure of oxygen such as in active muscle tissue in the body, hemoglobin releases oxygen

fetal hemoglobin

* “stickier”
* binds to oxygen as the mothers hemoglobin releases it


* deoxygenated fetal blood flows in close proximity to the mothers blood
* oxygenated fetal blood flows back to the fetal tissues delivering oxygen

muscles

* control the flow of air into and out of the lungs
* %%trachea, ribs, intercostal muscles, diaphragm%%

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inhalation

* diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract
* diaphragm is pulled lower and rib cage expands
* air is sucked into the lungs

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exhalation

* diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax
* chest cavity returns to original size
* air is forced back out to the trachea

why do organisms need food

food provides the raw materials for growth and the fuel to make it happen

food → digestion → takes nutrients (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water) → everything not used becomes waste

variety of diets for animals

carnivores (meat only)

herbivores (plants only)

omnivores (plants and meat)

energetic value of food

calories

* the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree celsius

components of energy expenditure

* basal metabolic rate (minimal energy expenditure or an organism at rest)
* actual daily energy expenditure (bmr plus the energy required for all activity)

water

essential nutrient and plays important roles in both intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid, including blood

* constitutes between 60-65% of body weight

proteins

* food broken down to build proteins in the body
* comprised of amino acids (cellular workers
* humans require 20 amino acids, 9 obtained through diet
* source: egg white, shrimp, tuna, poultry, meat, grains, vegetables, buts, seeds, and legumes

types of proteins

* complete proteins
* proteins that contain all nine essential amino acids
* incomplete proteins
* proteins that do not contain all nine essential amino acids

carbohydrates

* provide bodies with energy and more
* fuel for running your body
* fruits, vegetables, and grains
* stored in the liver and muscle cells
* sugars are the primary input for atp production

types of carbohydrates

* simple sugars
* glucose, fructose, and others
* release energy rapidly
* digestible complex sugars
* simple sugars bonded together like table sugar or salt
* fiber
* complex carbs that form structural parts of plants
* indigestible

lipids

* primary energy storage form but can be used for atp production
* fats
* long term energy storage
* butter, cheese, oils, eggs, meat

types of lipids

* saturated fats (not good)
* solid at room temperature
* more likely to be stored as fat in the body
* fatty acids are packed together
* unsaturated fats
* fatty acids have kinked tails that cannot be packed together
* less likely to be stored as fat in body
* liquid at room temperature

vitamins and minerals

* organic and inorganic molecules in the diet
* used in the production and action of enzymes and other molecules involved in the processing of food
* most people in united states do not benefit from taking them as supplements

digestive process

1. ingestion


1. mouth and esophogus
2. digestion


1. stomach and small intestine
3. absorption


1. moves nutrients from your gut to your cells
2. small intestine absorbs it
4. elimination


1. removes unusable material from body

balance of food categories

grain, vegetables, fruits, oils, dairy, meats and beans

diabetes

* caused by body’s inability to regulate blood sugar effectively
* type 1: pancreas doesn’t secrete enough insulin in response to an increase in blood sugar
* type 2: pancreas secretes plenty of insulin but the cells of body doesnt respond to it, usually due to a deficiency in glucose receptors on the cell membrane