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Neuron
A nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system.
Dendrite
A branchlike part of a neuron that receives signals from other neurons.
Axon
The long, thin part of a neuron that transmits signals away from the cell body.
Myelin sheath
A fatty substance that surrounds and insulates axons, facilitating faster signal transmission.
Action potential
A neural impulse that travels down an axon, triggering the release of neurotransmitters.
Threshold
The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron.
Refractory period
The short period after an action potential during which a neuron is unable to fire again.
All-or-none response
The principle that a neuron either fires at full strength or does not fire at all.
Synapse
The junction between two neurons where communication occurs.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses between neurons.
Reuptake
The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the neuron that released them.
Endorphins
Natural substances produced by the body to relieve pain and reduce stress.
Dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, reward, and motor function.
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that plays a role in muscle movement and memory.
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.
Norepinephrine
A neurotransmitter involved in arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
Glutamate
The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
GABA
The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.
Substance P
A neurotransmitter involved in the transmission of pain signals.
Agonist
A substance that enhances the action of neurotransmitters.
Antagonist
A substance that inhibits or blocks the action of neurotransmitters.
Nervous system
The body's electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.
Peripheral nervous system
The system that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body.
Central nervous system
The brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing information.
Autonomic nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls involuntary bodily functions.
Somatic nervous system
The division of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movements.
Sympathetic nervous system
The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with stressful situations.
Parasympathetic nervous system
The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body after stress.
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system.
Interneurons
Neurons that communicate with one another within the central nervous system.
Motor (efferent) neurons
Neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.
Reflex
A simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.
Endocrine system
The body’s system of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream.
Hormones
Chemical messengers produced by the endocrine glands that regulate various bodily functions.
Adrenal gland
Glands that produce hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol in response to stress.
Pituitary gland
The master gland of the endocrine system that regulates growth and controls other glands.
Adrenaline
A hormone released during stressful situations that increases heart rate and energy.
Leptin
A hormone that helps regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger.
Ghrelin
A hormone that stimulates appetite and increases food intake.
Melatonin
A hormone that regulates sleep-wake cycles.
Oxytocin
A hormone involved in social bonding, reproduction, and childbirth.
Lesion
Damage to brain tissue used for studying the effects of injury on behavior.
EEG (electroencephalogram)
A test that detects electrical activity in the brain.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
A scanning technique that uses magnetic fields to create detailed images of the brain.
fMRI (functional MRI)
A technique that measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.
Brainstem
The part of the brain that connects the brain and spinal cord, controlling automatic functions.
Medulla
The area of the brainstem that controls vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing.
Reticular formation
A network of neurons that plays a role in arousal and attentiveness.
Thalamus
The brain's sensory control center, directing messages to the sensory areas.
Cerebellum
The part of the brain that coordinates voluntary movements and balance.
Limbic system
A group of structures involved in emotions, memory, and motivation.
Amygdala
A part of the limbic system that plays a key role in processing emotions.
Hypothalamus
A brain region controlling the pituitary gland and regulating homeostasis.
Hippocampus
A part of the limbic system involved in memory formation.
Cerebral cortex
The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-level functions like thought and action.
Glial cells
Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system that support and protect neurons.
Frontal lobes
The brain regions associated with reasoning, planning, and problem-solving.
Parietal lobes
The brain regions that process sensory information and spatial awareness.
Occipital lobes
The areas of the brain that process visual information.
Temporal lobes
The brain regions that process auditory information and language.
Motor cortex
The area of the cerebral cortex that controls voluntary movement.
Somatosensory cortex
The area of the cerebral cortex that processes sensory input from the body.
Association areas
Regions of the cerebral cortex involved in interpreting and integrating information.
Neuroplasticity
The brain's ability to reorganize and adapt itself by forming new neural connections.
Neurogenesis
The process of generating new neurons in the brain.
Corpus-callosum
The thick band of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain.
Split brain
A condition resulting from severing the corpus callosum, affecting communication between hemispheres.
Left-brain specialization
The tendency for the left hemisphere of the brain to be more involved in analytical and logical tasks.
Right-brain specialization
The tendency for the right hemisphere of the brain to be more involved in creative and holistic tasks.
Dual processing
The principle that information is often processed on both conscious and unconscious levels.
Nature-Nurture
The debate over the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to behavior.
Environment
The external factors and conditions that influence behavior and development.
Heredity
The genetic transmission of traits from parents to offspring.
Behavior geneticist
A researcher who studies the interplay of genetics and environment in influencing behavior.
Chromosome
A threadlike structure composed of DNA that contains genes.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
The molecular code that carries genetic information in all living organisms.
Genes
Segments of DNA that determine specific traits or characteristics.
Genome
The complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.
Mutation
A change in a DNA sequence that affects genetic information.
Identical twins (monozygotic)
Twins derived from a single fertilized egg that splits into two.
Fraternal twins (dizygotic)
Twins developed from two separate fertilized eggs.
Bouchard’s twin studies
Research conducted by Bouchard that explored the influence of genetics on behavior through studying twins.
Molecular genetics
The field of biology that studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level.
Interact
The interplay between genes and environment in shaping behavior.
Epigenetics
The study of how behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect the way genes work.
Sleep
A natural state of rest characterized by reduced consciousness and activity.
Circadian rhythm
The biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle over a 24-hour period.
REM sleep
A sleep phase characterized by rapid eye movement and vivid dreaming.
Alpha waves
Brain wave patterns associated with relaxed, alert states, typically occurring while awake.
NREM sleep
Sleep not associated with rapid eye movement; divided into stages.
Hallucinations
Sensory experiences that appear real but are created by the mind, often occurring in sleep deprivation.
Hypnagogic sensations
Sensory experiences that occur just before falling asleep.
Delta waves
Slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.
Insomnia
Chronic difficulty in falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.
Sleep apnea
A sleep disorder characterized by pauses in breathing during sleep.
REM sleep behavior disorder
A condition where a person acts out their dreams during REM sleep.
Dream
A sequence of images, thoughts, or emotions occurring during sleep.
REM rebound
The tendency to experience more intense REM sleep after periods of sleep deprivation.
Psychoactive drug
A chemical substance that alters brain function and affects mood, perception, and behavior.
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