BIOL 203 Exam 1 (Lecture 1-6)

muscle tissue

contracts to produce movement

nervous tissue

detects changes and communicates information

connective tissue

supports, connects, protects, and fills spaces

epithelial tissue

covers surfaces, lines internal spaces, and forms glands

how do tissue categories fit into the levels of organization

different tissue types combine to form organs, most organs contain multiple tissue types working together

what does epithelium mean

epithelial tissue

gross anatomy

focuses on structures that are visible to the naked eye: organs, bones, muscles, and other large body parts typically through dissection or imaging techniques

microscopic anatomy

explores cellular and subcellular structures (studying tissues at a microscopic level)

physiology

focuses on understanding how body parts function (performance)

developmental anatomy

investigates changes in structures as an organism grows and develops

anatomy

the study of body structures and their relationships (architecture)

form of red blood cells

biconcave, flexible disc shape with no nucleus

function of red blood cells

maximizes surface area for gas exchange and allows cells to squeeze through tiny capillaries

form of alveoli in the lungs

tiny, thin-walled, balloon-like sacs surrounded by capillaries

function of alveoli in the lungs

provide a massive surface area for gas exchange between air and blood

microvilli

thin, comb-like projections on intestinal cells increase their absorptive feature

dendrites and axon

long, slender extensions of the plasma membrane allow neurons to communicate with other cells

myocyte

muscle cell

fascicle

bundle of myocytes

structure of skeletal muscle cells

long muscle cells

job of skeletal muscle cells

contract to produce movement

function of skeletal muscle cells

long fibers can shorten over distance and generate movement

chemical level of organization in a human

atoms combine to form molecules and molecules combine to form the fluid and organelles of a cell

cellular level of organization in a human

individual cells, which are the basic structural and functional units of living organisms

tissue level of organization in a human

groups of similar cells working together to perform a specific function

organ level of organization in a human

multiple tissues organized into a structure (organ) that performs a specific function in the body

organ level system level of organization in a human

multiple organs work together to perform a common, coordinated function

organismal level of organization in a human

the entire living organism as a whole, including sll the organ systems functioning together to maintain life

integumentary system

skin, hair, nails; protects the body and regulates temperature

skeletal system

bones, cartilage, ligaments; provides support, protection, and mineral storage

digestive system

mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas; breaks down food and absorbs nutrients

cardiovascular system

heart, blood, blood vessels; transports nutrients, gases, hormones, and wastes

nervous system

brain, spinal chord, nerves; rapid communication, coordination, and control

respiratory system

lungs, trachea, bronchi; gas exchange

reproductive system

male and female (testes, ovaries, uterus, etc) produces gametes and supports reproduction

muscular system

skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles; enables movement and heat production

endocrine system

hormone-producing glands (thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, etc); regulates long-term processes

urinary system

kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra; eliminates wastes and regulates water/electrolytes

lymphatic/immune system

lymph nodes, lymph vessels, spleen, thymus; defends against pathogens and returns fluid to blood

homeostasis

the tendency of biological systems to maintain relatively constant conditions in the internal environment, it ensures that essential parameters remain within a narrow range suitable for normal function

first homeostatic requirement

are measured in or associated with the blood

second homeostatic requirement

are essential for sustaining life

third homeostatic requirement

have dedicated sensors: specialized cells or receptors that detect changes in the variable

fourth homeostatic requirement

have a defined set point in the integrator: a target value the control center uses as a reference for normal conditions

fifth homeostatic requirement

are controlled through negative feedback: a regulatory mechanism in which the response counteracts the initial change to restore the variable toward its set point

what is the first component of a negative feedback loop

stimulus: external or internal change that disrupts homeostasis

what is the second component of a negative feedback loop

sensor or receptor to detect the stimulus

what is the third component of a negative feedback loop

integrator or control center: compares the detected value with the set point and selects the appropriate corrective response

what is the fourth component of a negative feedback loop

effectors or targets: carry out the response directed by the integrator, working to counteract the stimulus and re-establish homeostasis

waters high specific heat capacity

water resists rapid temperature change

waters high heat of vaporization (sweat cooling)

evaporation requires a large amount of heat

waters heat transfer

heat moves from warmer to cooler objects, water conducts heat away from the skin to make you feel cooler

calcium is essential for what

muscle contraction, neurotransmitter release, blood clotting, and cell signaling

potassium is critical for what

establishing resting membrane potential and action potentials in neurons and muscle cells

what does partial pressure of oxygen do

maintains adequate oxygen delivery to tissues for aerobic metabolism, insufficient PO₂ impairs ATP production

what does partial pressure of CO₂ do

regulates acid-base balance

why is blood hydrogen important

enzyme activity and protein structure require a narrow pH range

what does blood glucose concentration do

the primary energy source, especially for the brain

why is core body temperature important

temperature determines enzyme reaction rates and protein stability

why is mean arterial pressure important

it ensures that organs receive adequate blood flow

why is blood volume important

it directly influences blood pressure, cardiac output, and tissue perfusion

what is the function of blood osmolarity

it controls the movement of water between compartments and maintains cell volume

when does ATP release energy

when one phosphate group is removed

what happens when ADP gains a phosphate group to form ATP

energy from food is required to add a phosphate group, when ADP gains this phosphate group energy is brought in

what is the plasma membrane primarily composed of

a phospholipid bilayer containing phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids

fluid mosaic model

arrangement of lipids and proteins that move within the membrane

what does each phospholipid contain

a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic fatty acid tail

transmembrane proteins

most membrane proteins that span the membrane

peripheral proteins

proteins that attach temporarily to the membrane surface

ion channels

form pores that allow ions to cross the membrane

transporters

move molecules across membranes

receptors

receive extracellular signals (ligand) initiates intracellular signaling cascade

cell adhesion molecules

help cells stick together to each other or to the extracellular matrix

anchoring proteins

(connexins) which form gap junction channels and link the membrane to the cytoskeleton, maintaining cell structure

signal transduction proteins

G-protein subunits, protein kinase C (PKC), and phospholipase C (PLC)

cytoskeletal and structural proteins

(spectrin) found especially in red blood cells, where it forms a meshwork underneath the plasma membrane and helps maintain cell shape and flexibility

glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)

long, unbranched polysaccharide chains made of repeating disaccharides and are often negatively charged

proteoglycans

consist of a core protein with many long glycosaminoglycan chains attached

glycoproteins

membrane proteins that have relatively short carbohydrate chains attached

glycocalyx

carbohydrate-rich layer that coats the external surface of the plasma membrane, consisting of glycoproteins, glycolipids, and in specialized cells, proteoglycans

main functions of the glycocalyx

cell-to-cell recognition, cell adhesion, protection, and cell signaling

passive transport

no energy, no effort, peaceful, physical, high to low

active transport

energy required, action, physiological, low to high

moves substances down their concentration gradient and does not require ATP

passive

uses the Na⁺/K⁺ pump to move ions against their concentration gradient

active

includes simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, and filtration

passive

requires cellular energy either directly or indirectly

active

includes endocytosis and exocytosis

active

simple diffusion

molecules move directly through the phospholipid bilayer if they are small and nonpolar

facilitated diffusion

uses membrane proteins but remains passive, meaning no ATP is required, since substances are moving from high to low concentration

what transport method always travels down the concentration gradient from high to low

diffusion

what molecule would cross the membrane via simple diffusion

oxygen

what molecule would require facilitated diffusion to cross the plasma membrane

glucose

what substance would most likely cross the membrane via an ion channel

sodium ion (Na⁺)

during the operation of the Na⁺/K⁺ pump, ATP is converted into ADP, what does this reaction represent

ATP hydrolysis

which type of membrane transport is represented in the image

primary active transport (ATP directly powers the pump

phagocytosis

not selective, engulfs large particles like bacteria and does not rely on specific receptors like receptor-mediated endocytosis

pinocytosis

non-specific process that brings in extracellular fluid and dissolved substances in small vesicles

receptor-mediated endocytosis

highly selective because it uses specific receptors and clathrin-coated vesicles to bring in particular molecules, such as LDL cholesterol

the image shows a cell binding to a microbe, engulfing it into a vesicle, and digesting it after fusion with a lysosome: which type of transport process is described

phagocytosis