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critical thinking
comparing what you already know with the information you are given in order to decide whether you agree with it
hindsight bias (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
the feeling that you instinctively know something or someone; not always correct
peer reviewers
scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
falsifiable
capable of being disproved
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
Replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
case study
study of one individual in great detail
naturalistic observation
watching behavior in real-world settings without trying to manipulate the situation
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
social desirability bias
the tendency for people to say what they believe is appropriate or acceptable
self-report bias
when people report their behavior inaccurately
sampling bias
exists when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
Population
all those in a group being studied
Correlation
A measure of the relationship between two variables
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
Variable
A factor that can change in an experiment
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship where none exists
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.
experiment
a set of controlled observations that test the hypothesis
experimental group
the group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested
control group
the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.
random assignment
placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable
Single-blind procedure
the subjects do not know to what group they belong
double-blind procedure
neither the experimenter nor the subject knows to what group the subjects are in
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
independent variable
variable that is manipulated
confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results
experimenter bias
researcher expectations skew the results of the study
dependent variable
a variable (often denoted by y ) whose value depends on that of another.
Validity
Actually measuring exactly what you intend to measure
Quantitative Research
research that relies on numerical data
qualitative research
seeks in-depth, open-ended responses, not yes or no answers
informed consent
An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
Debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
Histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Mode
most frequently occurring score
Median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
mean
average
percentile rank
Percentage of scores falling at or below a specific score.
skewed distribution
When the results are not symmetrical (appears to favor one side over the other)
range
Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
normal curve
the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes
inferential statistics
numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance
meta-analysis
a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion
statistical significance
how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
effect size
the strength, of a relationship between two or more variables
