Social Groups and Educational attainment (copy)

becker

researched 60 chicago high school students and found that the w/c student is the furthest away from the ideal pupil and therefore will be negatively labelled

Hempel-Jorgensen (2009)

Studied one primarily WC school (Aspen) and one primarily MC school (Rowan). In the WC school, teachers reported discipline as a major problem, and labelled the ideal pupil as quiet, passive, and obedient. In the MC school, where discipline was less of an issue, the ideal pupil was labelled in terms of personality and academic ability, rather than behaviour.

dunne and gazeley

1. Normalise underachievement of the working-class

2. Teachers label w/c parents are seen as unsupportive

3. M/C parents are seen as supportive

4. This leads to setting extension tasks for m/c but easier homework for w/c (bottom set).

Rist (1970) - Labelling in primary schools.

Observation in a Kindergarten school. Labelling on tables based on ability

The 'Tigers' were the fast learning group- mainly m/c and of clean, neat appearance- seated closest to her and had greatest encouragement.

The 'Cardinals' and 'Clowns'- mainly w/c- were seated further away, given lower level books to read and fewer chances to show their ability.

A03 FSM

-fsm students accounted for 40% of all permanent exclusions

- permanent exclusion rate for pupils eligible for FSM is 0.12 around 4 times higher than for those not eligible which is 0.3

Douglas

IQ tests and the effects of setting and streaming

• At age 8 if placed in bottom/low set, at age 11 it would be lower

• IQ however drastically increased if placed in a higher set

Gillborn and Youdell

A to C economy- Educational Triage

boderline C/D have the most benefit to schools and so more effort is put into them

especially since schools are judged by progress 8 scores.

Mac An Ghail

The Academic Achievers- Working-class and successful, academic conformists

New Entreprisers- Working-class and successful, academic conformists

Real Englishmen- Middle-class and successful, academic deviants

Macho Lads- Working-class and unsuccessful, academic deviants

The Gays- Anti-school subculture, academic deviant

Evaluation of Mac An Ghail- subcultures

• Ball- Mixed-ability classes, labelling still occurred and m/c got positive- labelling is a more important factor than subcultures

Archer- Nike Identities

• Boys prioritise their dress instead of educational conformity

• Police the behaviour of other w/c boys to ensure that their w/c culture

Archer- Hyper-heterosexual feminine styles

• Girls prioritised their sexuality over their educational conformity

• Policed the behaviours of other girls and labelled deviants (educational conformists) as tramps

Flaherty

nearly 90% of all failing schools are located in deprived areas and main reason for missing school is money related

Flaherty -stigmatisation of FSM

money problems in the family are a significant factor in younger children's non-attendance at school

w/c children are more likely to have sick days or be excluded

Emily Tanner et al (2003)

Found that the cost of items such as transport, uniforms, books, computers, calculators, sports and music and art equipment places a heavy burden on poor families.

‘Free education is expensive’

Harker (2006)

found that w/c has less space to learn and play and due to less time outdoors, they are more likely to face health hazards and have mental health issues

shelter

1/3 of Pakistanis live in the poorest 10% of neighbourhoods in the UK

mariyn howard 2001

w/c children have lower intake of vitamins minerals and nutrients

Richard Wilkinson (1996)

• argues that the lower the social class, the higher the rate of hyperactivity, anxiety and conduct disorders- all have an affect in children's education.

• this is due to w/c diet being high in salt and sugar

J.W.B Douglas (1964)

• m/c parents are more interested in their child's intellectual development because they spend more time interested in school by visiting the school more often and contact teachers.

• m/c more likely to engage with their child during primary socialisation

Bernstein and Young

Middle class mothers are more likely to buy educational toys, books and activities that encourage reasoning skills and stimulate intellectual development.

Bereiter and Engelmann (1966)

Claim that language used in lower class homes is deficient. They describe lower class families as communicating by gestures, single words or disjointed phrases.

Basil Bernstein (1971)

Restricted code belonging to w/c as meaning is implicit and short and elaborate code belonged to m/c as meanings are explicit and clear

Douglas

Working class parents place less value on education, accepted their position fatalistically and therefore, didn’t engage with their child’s schooling

Hyman (1967)

w/c valued their subcultural beliefs more than education and created a 'self imposed barrier'

Feinstein (1998)

found that working class parents' lack of interest in their child's education was main reason for children's underachievement

Sugarman

Working class subculture has four key barriers:

1. fatalism

2. collectivism

3. immediate gratification

4. present-time orientation

Blackstone and Mortimore (evaluation of parental attitudes)

1. working class parents do not lack interest in child's education but rather does not have time to attend parents evening due to long working hours.

2. working class parents are put off by the middle class atmosphere schools give off.

direct criticism of cultural deprivation

Keddie- Myth of cultural deprivation

• victim-blaming

• ethnic minority children are culturally diff, not culturally deprived

• they underachieve because school are ethnocentric

Bordieu (1984)

• argues that cultural and material factors both contribute to educational achievement

• the m/c habitus places more value on activities that align with the culture of the schooling system and so m/c kids more likely to be exposed to the habitus of education compared to w/c children

Gerwitz (parental choice)

Privileged, use cultural capital to influence

Semi- WC but want best for kids

Disconnected- unaware of system always WC

Giborn and youdell Racialised expectations

Teachers would give harsher sanctions to black people and would often see black students as having behavioural problems (‘loud and disruptive’) Asian students= a problem that could be ignored

Mac An Ghail

• Studied black students in sixth form

• Formed anti-school subculture as a barrier to school racism and in fact had a self-negating prophecy

Troyna and Williams (1986)

Ethnocentric curriculum gives priority to white culture and the english language

David

Describes the national curriculm as 'specifically british curriculum' and ignores non European languages

Ball

Little Englandism in the English curriculum

Coard

The low achievement of black children can be explained through their inability to relate positively the curriculum and therefore, have low self-esteem

Mirza (1992)

3 types of teacher racism:

1. Colour Blind- not racist but didn’t acknowledge or stop racism

2. Liberal Chauvinists- Not inherently racist but saw EM culture and capital as inferior

3. Overt Racists- Would openly label and antagonise EM students

Sewell

4 responses form black boys to school:

1. Rebels- Anti-school, small but influential saw themselves as dominant over white students

2. Conformists- Largest group. accepted school values pragmatically and friends with other ethnicities

3. Retreatists- tiny minority, excluded from their ethnic group, anti-school

4. Innovators- Pro-education but anti-school, didn’t accept school rules or values but had high academic achievement- had respect from the Rebels

McRobbie

Studied women’s magazines

Found that the covers of the magazines changed in line with the rise of feminism and the changing desires of women

AO3 Analysis of EM underachievement

Joseph Roundtree Foundation- EMs are more likely to work lower paying jobs

The Swann Report- Socio-economic factors were a key factor in Afro-Caribbean underachievement

2018 Annual Population Survey:

• 38% of Pakistanis and Bangladeshis are economically inactive

• 27% of Black people are economically inactive

Madood

Asian families have cultural capital because:

1. they place high emphasis on education

2. They see education as a way to change their social status and gain social mobility

3. Intergenerational knowledge and values

AO3 Analysis of High achieving Asians

The Migration Observatory- Oxford University:

36% of Pakistani & Other Asian are over qualified for their low-income jobs showing they have higher cultural capital

Basit- ‘Education is seen as capital that would transform the lives of the younger generation’

Chinese percentage getting gcses 5 and above in maths and English: 81.3% boys and 86.2% girls

Driver and Bollard

A 4 yr old that can’t speak English has caught up by age 16

Sewell Family Structures

• Generating Genius in response to feeling that boys didn’t have a positive male role model in the home (24.6% of black households are single parent)

Browne- Journey of Female achievement

1980s- Concern over low female achievement

1990s- Girls began consistently outperforming boys

Now: Girls outperform boys in every subject

AO3 analysis: 2019 Attainment 8 score for girls was 49.3 and for boys it was 43.9

Webb et al (2008)

- number of women in employment went up from 47% in 1959 to 70% in 2007

- pay gap between men and women has fallen from 30% to 17% since 1975

- more and more women are breaking through the 'glass ceiling' e.g. Liz Truss, Teresa May, Dianne Abbott

Sharpe

In 70's, girls wanted a husband and a family. In the 90's, girls wanted a career

Fuller

• Year 11 girls and their subculture was centred around academic validation being a key part of their identity

• Girls believed in meritocracy

A03 for subject choice

In 2000 38% alevel mathematicians were girls, it was 40% in 2010

Diana rey

W/c girls havw limited opportunities for ambittions and job opportunities

Biggart

WC girls are more likely to face precarious position in labour market so see motherhood as only option

AO3 Evaluation of Changing ambitions of girls

Beck and Beck-Gernshiem- Individualisation and female independence is much more valued in contemporary society

French and French (1993)

Internal-Teacher's attention

• Found that boys get more attention overall because of misbehaving and requiring discipline

Myhill

Girls do better from positive reinforcement which created female passivity

Reproduces gender inequality as the higher jobs require assertiveness that girls have lost in favour of academic achievement

Francis

Teachers more likely to sanction boys more harshly than girls leading to boys developing a negative view of education

Spender (1980)

When boys asked questions they were respected, when girls asked questions they were criticised for being unladylike and assertive

Swannn

Boys more likely to dominate class discussions

Girls prefer group work and peer work

Gorard - Linear exams

Girls do better in linear exams as their attention span remains over time.

AO3 Evaluation of Teacher attention affecting female achievement

Elwood- Most subjects have removed coursework and yet girls still outperform boys and even when still present it is a small proportion of their grade

Bleach-

1. Girls prefer reading long-form prose compared to boys

2. boys prefer short non fiction books

Manifests itself negatively as Shakespeare= compulsory on national curriculum

Ringrose

There

Mitsos and Browne

Girls more successful in coursework as they are more conscientious and better organised.

• Boys have messy and untidy work not done on time

• Girls have neat and tidy work which is handed in on time

analysis of examination styles

- exams are linear after coalition govt in 2010 which favours people who are tidy

GIST/WISE

- girls into science and tech

- women into science and engineering

boaler

The impact of equal opportunities are the key reason for the changes in girl’s achievement as barriers have been removed and schools have become more meritocratic for girls

AO3 Analysis- Role Models

ONS 2015- 85% of all primary school teachers are female, 91.5% of teaching assistants are female

DofE (2022)- 75.5% of the teaching force is female

Between 1992-2012- female head teachers rose from 50% to 71%

For secondary school it rose from 22% to 37%

AO3 Negative Analysis of role models

• 96% of female headteachers are white

• 97% of male headteachers are white

Coffey and Delamont

higher positions in schools are still male dominated.

• schools are competitive, hierarchical and authoritarian which reflects the male attitude in the workplace

Jackson (1998)- consequences of marketisation

Due to marketisation, schools are trying to recruit girls

Slee

• Boys are a liability in education

• They have behaviour difficulties and distract others

Edwards and David (2000)

- says that parents allow boys to be boisterous and boys have trouble sitting still and concentrating

- argues that primary socialisation of boys have direct impact to male achievement and that boys are more influenced by their peers who have 'macho' values

burns and bracey

- girls have great presentation and care and they are more likely to read and have a higher reading age

AO3 Analysis of impact of Primary socialisation on Boys Achievement

DCSF (2017)- Gap achievement is mainly down to reading

Mothers were more likely to read to their children

Boys view reading as a feminine activity

schemes for boys

- reading champions scheme to encourage boys reading

- dads and sons- gets fathers to read to their sons

- playing for success- used sport to encourage reading and achievement.

Mitsos and Browne, Crisis of masculinity

• boys=demotivated and have lack of ambition and low self-esteem

• 'crisis in masculity' due to the closure of traditional manufacturing factories closed. men do not have traditional masculine jobs to aim for.

AO3 Analysis (negative)- crisis of masculinity in employment

Female employment= 72.2%

Male employment= 78.1%

jackson

- interviews in 8 schools and found that work and trying hard is 'uncool' to boys

Tony Sewell

school has become 'femininised' and don't cater for boys needs

- school discourages male traits such as competition and leadership

AO3 Evaluation: masculine traits such as competition are fostered through league tables

male primary teachers

- only 16% of primary school teachers are male (YouGov 2007)

- Survey of 603 children show how 51% of boys believe that they are better behaved with a male teacher

- 42% of boys say they work harder with a male teacher

AO3 Evaluation of Gender of teacher affecting achievement

• Francis- Interviewed 7-8 yr olds

• 2/3 said the gender of the teacher didn’t affect their behaviour

Read

51 primary school teachers 25 male and 26 female and found two differing types of language teachers used for discipline:

1. disciplinarian discourse- Explicit and visible, loud and sarcastic, dominant over classroom (masculine response)

2. liberal discourse- Implicit and invisible, treating children with respect and giving them pseudo-adultification (feminine response)

BOTH male and female teachers adopted disciplinarian discourse thus, gender of teacher has no impact on student reception

epstein

- laddish subcultures

- says there is a culture where 'real boys' dont work and they are more focused on peer groups

- boys who worked hard were called 'swots'

francis subcultures

laddish subcultures are growing and boys afraid of being swots as masculintiy was valued highly

masculinity> educational success

ringrose

The moral panic about male achievement has been sensationalised and exaggerated

Takes time and effort away from other struggling social groups e.g. EM, w/c.

Masks problems girls face in schools e.g. sexism and harassment

lobban

-Gender stereotyping in children's books which has a direct impact of subject choice e.g. The Tiger Who Came to Tea promotes expressive role

norman

Children are dressed differently and given different toys based on gender

Byrne

- boys encouraged to be tough whilst girls taught to be ladylike

oakley

- canalisation results in girls more likely to choose expressive subjects whilst boys pick a more instrumental subject

AO3 analysis of Gender stereotyping

Best Gender stereotyping still exists in books e.g. ‘Dangerous books for Boys’

Gender stereotyping doesn’t exist- ‘Boy in the Dress’

skelton

students would associate a subject with a certain gender

Mitsos

• Interviewed 11 pupils in a Coventry Comprehensive schools

• Stereotypical male and female behaviour and boys’ differences from girls. Boys had unfavourable responses to English

Kelly

• Science was traditionally a male subject as there were many male teachers and boys dominate the practicals.

• Male teachers used references that suited male interests

paetcher

Pupils see sport in the male gender domain, so girls who are sporty have to cope with the image that contradicts conventional female stereotype

dewar

Male students call sporty girls 'butch' or 'lesbians'

colley

• changing of content in the curriculum can alter its gender and identity- ‘Masculinisation of music’ due to the rise of technology and programming in the subject

• Working with a machine is considered masculine- computer science as such is seen as masculine

Arnot et al

• girls prefer talk that are open ended- more likely to be English or humanities based

• boys like commentary style answers and clear questions- more likely to be mathematic and science based.

browne and ross

Gender domains are shaped at a young age and cause boys and girls to choose different subjects as they perceive subjects as masculine or feminine

murphy

• boys and girls approach the same tasks in different way:

• girls will look for how things affect people

• boys will be more interested on how something works or is made

AO3 Analysis of the effects of school type on subject choice

• institute of physics- girls in single sex schools were 2-4 times more likely to pick physics

• DFES (2007)- Pupils who attend single-sex schools have less gendered subject images

• Leonard- In single-sex schools boys were more likely to pick English and girls were more likely to go on to do physics at university