UNIT 2

AP PSYCH COGNITION

Cognition

A pivotal component of psychology, integrating biological foundations with intricate cognitive processes.

Memory

A cognitive process that involves the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to make it meaningful.

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Decision making

The cognitive process of selecting a course of action from multiple alternatives.

Problem solving

The cognitive process of finding a solution to a difficult or complex issue.

Retinal Disparity

A binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance.

Similarity

Objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging together.

Figure and Ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).

Convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object.

Monocular Depth Cues

Depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.

Bottom up Processing

Analysis that starts at the sensory level and works up to higher levels of processing.

Top down Processing

Information processing guided by higher level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

Attention

Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events.

Schema

A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Relative Size

If two objects are known to be of similar size, we perceive the one that casts a smaller retinal image as farther away.

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.

Perceptual Set

A predisposition to perceive things in a certain way.

Texture Gradient

The tendency for textured surfaces to appear to become smaller and finer as distance from the viewer increases.

Gestalt Psychology

An approach to psychology that emphasizes that the whole is different from the sum of its parts.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus one's auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines, such as railroad tracks, appear to converge with distance. The more the lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Interposition

If one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer.

Binocular Depth Cues

Depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.

Closure

The perceptual tendency to fill in gaps in order to perceive a complete image.

Proximity

Objects that are close to each other tend to be perceived as belonging together.

Perceptual Constancies

Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.

Apparent Movement

The perception that a stationary object is moving.

Executive Functions

Higher order thinking processes that include planning, organizing, inhibition, and decision making.

Availability Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent Thinking

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions.

Mental Set

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.

Priming

The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.

Framing

The way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Algorithms

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error prone—use of heuristics.

Testing Effect

Enhanced performance on a memory test caused by being tested on the material to be remembered.

Heuristics

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error prone than algorithms.

Gambler's Fallacy

The fallacy of thinking that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged. The fallacy lies in the belief that a departure from what occurs on average or in the short term will be corrected in the short term.

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking. It refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one's understanding and performance.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.

Sunk cost Fallacy

Making decisions about a current situation based on what one has previously invested in the situation.

Intelligence

Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

g (General Intelligence)

A factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

Achievement Tests

Tests designed to assess what a person has learned.

Aptitude Tests

Tests designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

Construct Validity

The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct.

Predictive Validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

Multiple Intelligences

Theory proposed by Howard Gardner that suggests that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence.

Fixed Mindset

The belief that abilities are fixed and unchangeable.

Growth Mindset

The belief that abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work.

Reliability

The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and 'declare.'

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

Defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

Episodic Memory

The ability to recall and mentally re experience specific episodes from one's personal past.

Semantic Memory

Memory for factual information.

Test Retest Reliability

A method for determining the reliability of a test by comparing a test taker's scores on the same test taken on separate occasions.

Split Half Reliability

A measure of reliability in which a test is split into two parts and an individual's scores on both halves are compared.

Implicit Memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection.

Mental Age

A measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance.

Chronological Age

The age of an individual expressed as time elapsed since birth.

Stereotype Threat

A self confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

Stereotype Lift

When awareness of positive expectations improves performance on tasks.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits.

Flynn Effect

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations.

Standardization

Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform a future action at the appropriate time that you previously intended to accomplish.

Multi Store Model of Memory

A model that describes memory as consisting of three distinct stages: sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well learned information, such as word meanings.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Long term Potentiation

An increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.

Encoding

The processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage.

Sensory Memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Iconic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Short Term Memory

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.

Levels of Processing Model

This model of memory suggests that memory retention is directly related to the depth of mental processing, with deeper processing producing better recall.

Shallow Encoding

Processing information based on its surface characteristics.

Deep Encoding

Processing information based on its meaning.

Long Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Working Memory Model

An updated version of short term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual spatial information, and of information retrieved from long term memory.

Central Executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and processing.

Phonological Loop

The part of working memory that holds and processes verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

The part of working memory that holds and processes visual and spatial information.

Structural Encoding

Shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus.

Phonemic Encoding

Encoding of sounds, especially the sounds of words.

Semantic Encoding

The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

Retrograde Amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from one's past.

Anterograde Amnesia

An inability to form new memories.

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Massed Practice

Cramming information all at once. It is less effective than spreading learning over time.