AP Psyche Unit 3 (Modules 9-15)

nervous system

an extensive network of specialized cells that carry information to, and from all parts of the body

neuroscience

deals with the structure and function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue. It has a relationship to behavior and learning.

neuron

A nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system; neurons are a special type of cell with the sole purpose of transferring information around the body. they are like Queen bees; on their own, they cannot feed or sheath themselves.

dendrites

branch – like structures that receive messages from other neurons. bushy, branching extensions that receive in integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body.

soma (cell body)

The cell body of the neuron, responsible for maintaining the life of the cell. It is the part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, the cells life support center.

axon

Long, tube like structure that carries the neural message to other cells. It is attached to the soma, the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

myelin sheath

fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of some neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse it helps clean up waste products and get rid of dead neurons

myelin sheath deterioration causes:

motor impairments, such as multiple sclerosis

terminal branches

The ends of the axon containing terminal buttons, which hold synaptic vesicles that store, Neurotransmitters; forms, junctions with other cells

glial cells

cells that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory. Glial cells are worker bees; they provide nutrients and insulating, myelin, guide, neural connections, and mop up ions and neurotransmitters

how a neural impulse is generated

if the combined received chemical signals exceed a minimum threshold, the neuron fires, transmitting, an electrical impulse - the action, potential-down its axon by means of a chemistry to electricity process.

threshold

The level of simulation required to trigger a neural impulse

all or none response

more stimulation does not produce a more intense neural transmission. The neurons reaction is an all or none response. Neural firing happens at full response or not at all; like guns, neurons either fire, or they don’t. Squeezing a trigger harder, won’t make the bullet go faster.

excitatory signal

excitatory neurotransmitter signals trigger action

inhibitory signal

inhibitory neurotransmitter signals depress action

resting state of an axon

prior to beginning the action potential, the outside of an axon membrane has mostly positive, charged sodium ions, and the interior contains negatively charged proteins in a small amount of positively charged potassium ions. This creates a slightly negative charge and at this point, the neuron is said to be in a resting state, or polarized.

steps in an action potential

1st- the semi permeable axon opens its gates. Once the threshold is Matt positive sodium ions, flood in through the channels since the inside of the membrane is slightly more negative, there’s sodium ions try to balance to charge this causes a slight depolarization.

2nd-the depolarization changes the electrical charge of the next part of the axon gates in the second area, now open, allowing even more sodium ions to flow in at the same time, gate open, and the first part of the axon, allowing potassium ions to flow out this repolarize that section of the axon

next- the ions pumps continues to depolarize new sections of the axon and repolarize the previous sections. The influx of the positive ions is the neural impulse.

refractory Period

subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axons returned to its resting state. Then the neuron can fire again it is a resting pause.

neurotransmitter

Chemical messengers that travel across the synapse and Brian to receptor sites on the receiving neuron

synapse

The junction between the accented of descending there on, and a dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this Junction is called the synaptic gap or the synaptic cleft.

reuptake

A neurotransmitters reabsorption by the sending neuron

dopamine

plays a key role in movement, learning, attention, and emotion, and under supply of dopamine at the synapse is linked to Parkinson’s disease

endogenous morphine (endorphins)

natural, opiate like neurotransmitters, linked to pain control and pleasure

Agonists

A drug molecule that increases a Neurotransmitter’s action

antagonist

A drug molecule that inhibits are blocks and neurotransmitters actions

The nervous system 2

The body, speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

3 types of nerve cells

sensory (afferent)

motor (efferent)

interneurons

nerves

bundle of axons of many neurons, that for Nuro cables, connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glance, and sense organs

sensory neurons (afferent)

contain afferent nerve fibers; carry information from the sense organs to the central nervous system

motor neurons

contain efferent neurons; carry messages from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands

Central nervous system (CNS)

It’s made up of the brain and spinal cord. It’s the decision maker is responsible for coordinating, incoming sensory messages and outgoing motor messages.

peripheral nervous system

It’s made up of sensory and motor neurons. It connects the body to the central nervous system by gathering information from the senses and transmitting the messages from the central nervous system.

somatic

Controls the bodys skeletal muscles, a.k.a. skeletal nervous system

autonomic

Controls the glands in the muscles of the internal organs, such as the heart; operates automatically

sympathetic nervous system

arouses the body, mobilizing its energy (flight, fight, or freeze)

accelerate heartbeat, raise blood pressure, slow, suggestion, raises blood, sugar, and cools the body

parasympathetic nervous system

calms the body, conserving, energy (rest or digest)

decelerates heartbeat, lowers blood pressure, stimulates digestion, processes waste, and calms the body

brain

comprised of the cortex and subcortical structures carrying out various functions

-nerves arranged into neural networks

spinal cord

to a connection between peripheral nervous system and brain. it oversees the sensory and motor pathways of reflexes

reflex

sense receptors in the skin, send signals up through the spinal cord via sensory neurons. interneurons in a spinal cord receive the information from the sensory neurons and send signals back through motor neurons . motor neurons connect to muscles in the body and direct movement

nervous system 3

neurons release neurotransmitters

neurotransmitters move across synapses

neural transmission is nano-fast (text message)

endocrine system

glands secrete hormones

hormones move through the bloodstream

hormonal secretion is slower (mail)

adrenal glands

when the sympathetic nervous system is activated during a flight, fight, or freeze event, the adrenal glands release epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline and noradrenaline) to energize the body

epinephrine

energizes the body

norepinephrine

calms the body

pituitary gland

stimulates growth and is the master gland-most important

The hypothalamus directs the pituitary gland to regulate growth and control other endocrine glands

oxytocin

stimulates the uterine contracts of childbirth and milk secretion also promise pair bonding group cohesion and trust

lesion

brain tissue is destroyed

-researchers study the impact on functioning

lesioning

the insertion of a thin, insulated wire into the brain through which an electrical current is sent has destroys the brain cells at the top of the wire

stimulation

brain regions are stimulated electrically, chemically, or magnetically and researchers study the impact on functioning

electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB)

milder electrical current that causes neurons to react as if they had received a message

EEG

a recording of the waves of activity across the brains surface measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

MEG

a brain imaging technique that measures magnetically fields from the brains natural electrical activity

CT CAT

x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer to show a slice of the brains structure; it shows structural damage

PET

visual display of brain activity that detects where a radio-active glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. shows activity

MRI

uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of brain anatomy; more detailed than CT CAT

fMRI

measure of blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans to show brain function or as well as structure; shows damage

medulla

at the base of the brain stem; controls heartbeat and breathing

pons

just above the medulla; controls sleep and helps coordinate movements

reticular formation

helps control arousal and filters incoming and outgoing sensory stimuli; nerve network that travels through the brain stem into the thalamus

thalamus

top of the brainstem; relay station for incoming and outgoing sensory information(with the exception of smell)

cerebellum

processions sensory input, coordinating movement and balance, nonverbal learning and memory; rear of the brainstem

limbic system

“the midbrain”

amygdala

two lima-bean-sized neural clusters; linked to emotion, fear, and aggression (fight or flight)

hypothalamus

below (hypo) the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temp; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, linked to emotion and reward

hippocampus

helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts or events; small structure with two “arms” that wrap around the thalamus

cerebral cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the central hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center

-it is divided into four regions called lobes

the four lobes that make up the cerebral cortex

frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, temporal lobe

frontal lobes

involved in speaking, motor movements, judgements, and decision-making

parietal lobes

receives and processes sensory input for touch and body position

temporal lobes

each lobe receives auditory information, primarily from the opposite ear

occipital lobes

each lobe receives visual information, primarily from opposite visual field

motor cortex

controls voluntary movements

somatosensory cortex

registers information from the skin senses and body movement

auditory cortex function

receives info from the ears

visual cortex function

receives info from the eyes

association areas

most of the brains cortex which integrates information involved in learning, remembering, thinking, and other higher-level functions

-attention is shifted, planning occurs

-not specifically devoted to motor or sensory cortex functions

brocas area

language center located in the left frontal lobe involved in expressive language

wernicke’s area

language center located in the left temporal lobe involved in receptive language

plasticity

the brains ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

neurogenensis

although the brain often attempts self-repair by reorganizing existing tissue, it sometimes attempts to mend itself through neurogenesis- producing new neurons

split brain

The corpus callosum is a wide band of axon fibers connections the two hemispheres of the brain

-split brain results when the fibers of the corpus callosum are severed isolations each hemisphere from the other

how is a split brain different from an intact brain?

individual brain: info is readily transferred across the corpus callosum from both hemispheres of the brain

split: this cross-transference does not occur

in the left hemisphere

contains two association areas, brocas and wernickes area that are involves in expressive and receptive language

left hemisphere

in most people:

-speaking and language

-math calculations

-making literal interpretations

controlling the right side of the body

right hemisphere

in most people:

-perceptual tasks

-making interpretations

-modulating speech

-visual perception

-recognition of emotion

-controlling the left side of the body

consciousness

our objective awareness of ourselves and our environment

-helps us cope with novelty and act in our best interests

cognitive neuroscience

combines the study of brain activity with how we learn, think, remember and perceive

dual processing

the principle that info is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks. the two track mind

-perception, memory, thinking, language, and attitudes all operate on two levels- a conscious, deliberate “high road” and an unconscious, automatic “low road”

the high road is reflective, the low road intuitive

hindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

parallel processing

unconscious processing to many aspects of a problem simultaneously; generally used to process well-learned information or to solve easy problems

sequential processing

conscious processing or one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems

hereditary (nature)

the genetic transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring

environment (nurture)

every non-genetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us

what do behavior geneticists study?

the relative power and limits of hereditary and environmental influences on behavior

chromosome

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

-each person has 46 chromosomes; you inherit 23 from your mother and 23 from your father

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid- a complex molecule containing the genetic info that makes up the chromosomes

genes

the biochemical units of hereditary that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins

-you have ~20,000 genes

human genome

the complete instructions for making a human organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that humans chromosomes

identical monozygotic twins

a single egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms

fraternal dizygotic twins

separate fertilized eggs that share a maternal prenatal environment… no more alike than siblings