Prenatal Growth Order
Germinal → Embryonic → Fetal
Germinal
0-2 weeks; time from conception to implantation
Is referred to as ZYGOTE (a fertilized human egg which consists of 23 pairs of moms and dads chromosomes)
Embryonic
3-8 weeks; most important and critical stage, when the heartbeat begins, the brain is developing, and the body is recognizable (essentially all major organs develop)
4th week is when the neural chord appears
referred to as EMBRYO (most vulnerable to hazards)
Fetal
week 9-birth of baby; the last three months are when rapid growth of the body and brain occurs which includes the expansion of volume, complexity and physical maturation
referred to as a FETUS (baby my be subject to mothers choices)
What are some Maternal Influences on the fetus?
Health (stress/diseases; higher stress leads to decrease of oxygen which causes health defects)
Diet/Nutrition (folic acid; overconsumption of certain nutrients can lead to defects)
Age (infant mortality; mothers under 20 tend to lose their babies)
What is a Teratogen Influence on the fetus?
Environmental hazards that can damage the developing embryo/fetus such as drugs (legal or illegal)
Harmful towards the structure of a embryo/fetus at particular points in development (critical periods of susceptibility)
What Influence does the baby carrier’s Alcohol Consumption have on a fetus?
Can cause birth defects, intellectual disabilities, neurodevelopmental disorders, low birth weight and preterm delivery
There is no safe time or amount to consume alcohol during pregnancy
What is the Physical Growth in Infancy?
The weight of a baby quadruples within the first 2 years on average
Brain Growth and Motor Development
What is the Brain Growth of an Infant?
Reaches 75% of adult size by 2 years old
Most growth is in size/complexity of neurons, but neurogenesis may continue through middle age in certain brain regions
Experience affects brain development
What is Neurogenesis?
The development of neurons in the brain.
What is the Motor Development of an Infant?
Most crawl, stand, and walk at roughly the same ages
Each lifestyle varies depending on the child, but on average most toddlers have many similarities
What is Dementia?
Loss of mental functioning due to the physical changes of the brain (such as emotions, memory, and thinking/reasoning)
What is Alzheimer’s Disease?
A common cause of Dementia
Progressive (gets worse as a person ages) and incurable
The Hippocampus and Cerebral Cortex is damaged; ventricles fill with fluid and become larger
What did Piaget contribute to Development Theory?
Cognitive Development Theory and the stages; a constructivist theory where children construct knowledge by themselves
Assimilation, Accommodation, Equilibrium/Disequilibrium
What are the stages of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory?
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 y/o)
Preoperational Stage (2-7 y/o)
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 y/o)
Formal Operational Stage (11+ y/o)
S-P-C-F
What does Mental Representation refer to?
The way things are represented in an infants long-term memory.
What occurs during the Sensorimotor Stage?
Infants get to know the world through their senses and actions
Their ability to hold their mental representation is increased
Object Permanence (8 months)
A-not-B Error (8-12 months)
Deferred Imitation (18-24 months)
What is Object Permanence?
The knowledge that things, people, or objects continue to exist even when not visible in the moment.
What is A-not-B Error?
When children reach for objects where last seen, instead of where hidden.
What is Deferred Imitation?
Stored memory that is used later
Evidence of persistent mental representations of the repetition of others behaviours after a timed delay
Watching → Storing Long-Term Memory → Imitation after x time
What occurs during the Preoperational Stage?
The ability to represent the world through language and mental representations
Toward the end of the stage, children can see the world through other people's perspectives
Symbolic Representation
Egocentrism
Centration
Lack of Conservation
What is Symbolic Representation?
The ability to use one thing to represent or stand for another thing
Scale Models; model room is used for children to search for objects in a real life sized room
What is Egocentrism?
The tendency for children to perceive the world from their own POV, and be unable to understand other POV’s
Three Mountains Task; there are three mountains on a sand table, each child is only able to perceive the mountains from their own POV
Egocentric Talk; when children conversate and each child is on their own topic
What is Centration?
The tendency for children to focus on a single dimension of an object/event at a time, while neglecting others
Balance Scale Task; used to test the children’s ability to reason logically and understand the relationship between weight and distance
What is the Lack of Conservation concept?
Changing the appearance of objects and observing if children understand that the key properties of these objects do not change; they most times do not
Liquid, Solid, Numbers
What is the Concrete Operational Stage?
When children begin to understand conservation
They start thinking logically and begin reasoning about concrete objects
They have some difficulty with abstract concepts/hypotheticals and difficulty reasoning systematically
Pendulum Problem; using a systematic approach to assess a childs ability to separate factors that affect an experimental set up
What is the Formal Operational Stage?
When a child begins to think abstractly and think hypothetically
Capable of systematic and scientific reasoning
Thinking also is adult-like
What are Pros of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory?
It is Highly Influential
Children are not small adults
Learning is an active rather than a passive process since children learn by themselves and create their own thoughts
Exploring general
What are Cons of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory?
Development is more continuous
Underestimated children’s competence (each person has individual differences)
Culturally based
What did Vygotsky contribute to Development Theory?
Sociocultural Perspective; claims that Children are social beings
Children are surrounded by people who are eager to help them learn, while also being eager to learn themselves
Development Process
Intersubjectivity
Social Scaffolding and ZPD
What is Vygotsky’s Development Process?
Development is continuous
Many processes are the same in all societies, however content varies depending on culture and shapes the thinking of children accordingly
What is Intersubjectivity?
Mutual understanding people have when they are communicating
Joint Attention; being directed to another object by a second party and focusing on that object
Social Referencing; children’s use of emotional cues to interpret situations/new things
What is Social Scaffolding and ZPD?
Competent individuals provide a temporary framework that supports children’s thinking at a higher level
Zone of Proximal Development is the difference between what children can do unsupported VS with optimal support
What is a Temperament?
Behavioural tendencies that are biologically determined
Genetic components
Distinguish children from other children based off characteristics
What are Dimensions of Temperament?
How researchers observe children’s tendencies
Fearfulness/Approach Withdrawal
Irritability
Mood
Activity Level
Attention Span
Regularity/Rhythmicity
What are Temperament Profiles?
Researchers classify babies into these categories (Easy, Difficult, Slow to Warm Up).
What does it mean for a baby to be Easy?
When the baby has a positive mood, are adaptable, have regular habits, are predictable, and quickly establish routines. 40% of all babies.
What does it mean for a baby to be Difficult?
When a baby is active, irritable and irregular, reacts to novelty, can not adjust well to new circumstances, and might withdraw from them. 10% of all babies.
What does it mean for a baby to be Slow to Warm Up?
When a baby is moody, inactive, slow but still adapts to novelty, and quiet. 15% of all babies.
What does Goodness of Fit mean?
How well the temperament of a child matches the temperament of their parent/environment.
What is Attachment?
Strong emotional bonds with one or more intimate companions. These bonds are likely to become consistent throughout a child’s life.
What did Bowlby contribute to Attachment?
Attachment Theory
Phases of Attachment formation and Characteristics of Attachment
What is Bowlby’s Attachment Theory?
Claims that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means to increase survival.
What are the characteristics of Attachment?
Proximity Maintenance
Safe Haven
Secure Base
Separation Distress/Anxiety
What is Proximity Maintenance?
The desire for a child to be near their attachment figure.
What is Safe Haven?
When a child is scared, they desire to return to their attachment figure for comfort and safety.
What is Secure Base?
When their attachment figure is present in a new environment, a child is at ease to explore.
What is Separation Distress/Anxiety?
The feeling of anxiety when their attachment figure is not present.
What are the Phases of Attachment Formation?
Asocial/Pre-Attachment (0-6w)
Indiscriminate Attachment (6w-7m)
Specific Attachment (7-9m)
Multiple Attachment (by 18m)
What is the Asocial/Pre-Attachment Phase?
When babies produce innate signals to gain attention.
What is the Indiscriminate Attachment Phase?
When babies are responsive toward attachment figures, but not strangers.
What is the Specific Attachment Phase?
When babies seek contact with their regular attachment figure and is anxious when they are not present.
What is the Multiple Attachments Phase?
When babies take on the role of developing attachments with other figures.
How is Attachment Assessed?
The Strange Situation Procedure
Stimulates caregiver-infant interactions
What are the Attachment Styles?
Secure (~60%)
Insecure - Avoidant (~15%-20%)
Insecure - Resistant/Anxious (~15%-20%))
Disorganized (~5%-10%)
What is a Secure Attachment Style?
Infant has an average attachment to their attachment figure, upset when mother is not present. Is weary when stranger walks in.
What is an Insecure Avoidant Attachment Style?
Independent, not worried about attachment figure leaving/returning, or when stranger enters.
What is an Insecure Resistant Attachment Style?
In need of attachment figure, however, may resist or seek comfort when attachment figure returns from leaving. Weary of stranger.
What is a Disorganized Attachment Style?
Infant is confused in situations; avoids attachment figure when present, but resists when returns from leaving. Mix of Insecure styles.
What are the Long-Term Effects of Attachment Styles?
“Continuity“ from preschool-adulthood
Securely attached infants: Positive developmental / Insecurely attached infants: Negative developmental
Internal Working Model which is how a young child builds up a sense of emotional well-being through relationships
What is Delay Gratification?
A child’s ability to give up/pass up short-term gains, for long-term rewards (Marshmallow Experiment)
Early ability to delay gratification predicts success in future
What is Morality?
Principles/ideals that help individuals:
Distinguish right from wrong (cognitive)
Act on this distinction (behavioural)
Feel pride in good conduct and guilt due to bad conduct (emotional)
What did Kohlberg contribute to Moral Development?
Moral Development Theory and the Levels of Moral Development.
What is Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory?
Hypothetical Moral Dilemmas are faced by children
The moral reasoning behind answers and explanations as to why children do/do not do things
What are the Levels of Moral Judgement?
Preconventional (S1,2)
Conventional (S3,4)
Postconventional (S5,6)
What is the Preconventional Level of Moral Judgement?
When children morally judge based off punishments and rewards.
What is the Conventional Level of Moral Judgement?
When children morally judge based off social approval, order, rules, and law.
What is the Postconventional Level of Moral Judgement?
When children morally judge based off ethical principles and social contract/individual rights.