PSY202 Development

week 3-4

Prenatal Growth Order

Germinal → Embryonic → Fetal

Germinal

* 0-2 weeks; time from conception to implantation
* Is referred to as ZYGOTE (a fertilized human egg which consists of 23 pairs of moms and dads chromosomes)

Embryonic

* 3-8 weeks; most important and critical stage, when the heartbeat begins, the brain is developing, and the body is recognizable (essentially all major organs develop)
* 4th week is when the neural chord appears
* referred to as EMBRYO (most vulnerable to hazards)

Fetal

* week 9-birth of baby; the last three months are when rapid growth of the body and brain occurs which includes the expansion of volume, complexity and physical maturation
* referred to as a FETUS (baby my be subject to mothers choices)

What are some Maternal Influences on the fetus?

* Health (stress/diseases; higher stress leads to decrease of oxygen which causes health defects)
* Diet/Nutrition (folic acid; overconsumption of certain nutrients can lead to defects)
* Age (infant mortality; mothers under 20 tend to lose their babies)

What is a Teratogen Influence on the fetus?

* Environmental hazards that can damage the developing embryo/fetus such as drugs (legal or illegal)
* Harmful towards the structure of a embryo/fetus at particular points in development (critical periods of susceptibility)

What Influence does the baby carrier’s Alcohol Consumption have on a fetus?

* Can cause birth defects, intellectual disabilities, neurodevelopmental disorders, low birth weight and preterm delivery
* There is no safe time or amount to consume alcohol during pregnancy

What is the Physical Growth in Infancy?

* The weight of a baby quadruples within the first 2 years on average
* Brain Growth and Motor Development

What is the __Brain Growth__ of an Infant?

* Reaches 75% of adult size by 2 years old
* Most growth is in size/complexity of neurons, but __neurogenesis__ may continue through middle age in certain brain regions  
* Experience affects brain development

What is __Neurogenesis?__

The development of neurons in the brain.  

What is the __Motor Development__ of an Infant?

* Most crawl, stand, and walk at roughly the same ages
* Each lifestyle varies depending on the child, but on average most toddlers have many similarities 

What is Dementia?

Loss of mental functioning due to the physical changes of the brain (such as emotions, memory, and thinking/reasoning)

What is Alzheimer’s Disease?

* A common cause of Dementia
* Progressive (gets worse as a person ages) and incurable
* The Hippocampus and Cerebral Cortex is damaged; ventricles fill with fluid and become larger

What did __Piaget__ contribute to Development Theory?

* **Cognitive Development Theory** and the stages; a constructivist theory where children construct knowledge by themselves
* Assimilation, Accommodation, Equilibrium/Disequilibrium

What are the stages of __Piaget’s__ Cognitive Development Theory?

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 y/o)
2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 y/o)
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 y/o)
4. Formal Operational Stage (11+ y/o)

S-P-C-F

What does Mental Representation refer to?

The way things are represented in an infants long-term memory.

What occurs during the Sensorimotor Stage?

* Infants get to know the world through their senses and actions
* Their ability to hold their mental representation is increased
* Object Permanence (8 months)
* A-not-B Error (8-12 months)
* Deferred Imitation (18-24 months)

What is Object Permanence?

The knowledge that things, people, or objects continue to exist even when not visible in the moment.

What is A-not-B Error?

When children reach for objects where last seen, instead of where hidden.

What is Deferred Imitation?

* Stored memory that is used later
* Evidence of persistent mental representations of the repetition of others behaviours after a timed delay
* Watching → Storing Long-Term Memory → Imitation after x time

What occurs during the Preoperational Stage?

* The ability to represent the world through language and mental representations
* Toward the end of the stage, children can see the world through other people's perspectives
* Symbolic Representation
* Egocentrism
* Centration
* Lack of Conservation

What is Symbolic Representation?

* The ability to use one thing to represent or stand for another thing
* __Scale Models__; model room is used for children to search for objects in a real life sized room

What is Egocentrism?

* The tendency for children to perceive the world from their own POV, and be unable to understand other POV’s
* __Three Mountains Task__; there are three mountains on a sand table, each child is only able to perceive the mountains from their own POV
* __Egocentric Talk__; when children conversate and each child is on their own topic

What is Centration?

* The tendency for children to focus on a single dimension of an object/event at a time, while neglecting others
* __Balance Scale Task;__ used to test the children’s ability to reason logically and understand the relationship between weight and distance

What is the Lack of Conservation concept?

* Changing the appearance of objects and observing if children understand that the key properties of these objects do not change; they most times do not
* Liquid, Solid, Numbers

What is the Concrete Operational Stage?

* When children begin to understand conservation
* They start thinking logically and begin reasoning about concrete objects
* They have some difficulty with abstract concepts/hypotheticals and difficulty reasoning systematically
* __Pendulum Problem;__ using a systematic approach to assess a childs ability to separate factors that affect an experimental set up

What is the Formal Operational Stage?

* When a child begins to think abstractly and think hypothetically
* Capable of systematic and scientific reasoning
* Thinking also is adult-like

What are Pros of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory?

* It is Highly Influential
* Children are not small adults
* Learning is an __active__ rather than a __passive__ process since children learn by themselves and create their own thoughts
* Exploring general

What are Cons of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory?

* Development is more continuous
* Underestimated children’s competence (each person has individual differences)
* Culturally based

What did Vygotsky contribute to Development Theory?

* __Sociocultural Perspective;__ claims that Children are social beings
* Children are surrounded by people who are eager to help them learn, while also being eager to learn themselves
* Development Process
* Intersubjectivity
* Social Scaffolding and ZPD

What is Vygotsky’s Development Process?

* Development is continuous
* Many processes are the same in all societies, however content varies depending on culture and shapes the thinking of children accordingly

What is Intersubjectivity?

* Mutual understanding people have when they are communicating
* __Joint Attention__; being directed to another object by a second party and focusing on that object
* __Social Referencing__; children’s use of emotional cues to interpret situations/new things

What is Social Scaffolding and ZPD?

* Competent individuals provide a temporary framework that supports children’s thinking at a __higher level__
* **Zone of Proximal Development** is the difference between what children can do *unsupported* VS with *optimal support* 

What is a Temperament?

* Behavioural tendencies that are biologically determined


* Genetic components
* Distinguish children from other children based off characteristics

What are Dimensions of Temperament?

* How researchers observe children’s tendencies
* Fearfulness/Approach Withdrawal
* Irritability
* Mood
* Activity Level
* Attention Span
* Regularity/Rhythmicity

What are Temperament Profiles?

Researchers classify babies into these categories (Easy, Difficult, Slow to Warm Up).

What does it mean for a baby to be __Easy?__

When the baby has a positive mood, are adaptable, have regular habits, are predictable, and quickly establish routines. 40% of all babies.

What does it mean for a baby to be __Difficult?__

When a baby is active, irritable and irregular, reacts to novelty, can not adjust well to new circumstances, and might withdraw from them. 10% of all babies.

What does it mean for a baby to be __Slow to Warm Up__?

When a baby is moody, inactive, slow but still adapts to novelty, and quiet. 15% of all babies.

What does Goodness of Fit mean?

How well the temperament of a child matches the temperament of their parent/environment.

What is Attachment?

Strong emotional bonds with one or more intimate companions. These bonds are likely to become consistent throughout a child’s life.

What did __Bowlby__ contribute to Attachment?

* Attachment Theory
* Phases of Attachment formation and Characteristics of Attachment

What is Bowlby’s Attachment Theory?

Claims that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means to increase survival.

What are the characteristics of Attachment?

* Proximity Maintenance
* Safe Haven
* Secure Base
* Separation Distress/Anxiety

What is __Proximity Maintenance__?

The desire for a child to be near their attachment figure.

What is __Safe Haven__?

When a child is scared, they desire to return to their attachment figure for comfort and safety.

What is __Secure Base__?

When their attachment figure is present in a new environment, a child is at ease to explore.

What is __Separation Distress/Anxiety__?

The feeling of anxiety when their attachment figure is not present.

What are the Phases of Attachment Formation?

1. Asocial/Pre-Attachment (0-6w)
2. Indiscriminate Attachment (6w-7m)
3. Specific Attachment (7-9m)
4. Multiple Attachment (by 18m)

What is the __Asocial/Pre-Attachment__ Phase?

When babies produce innate signals to gain attention.

What is the __Indiscriminate Attachment__ Phase?

When babies are responsive toward attachment figures, but not strangers.

What is the __Specific Attachment__ Phase?

When babies seek contact with their regular attachment figure and is anxious when they are not present.

What is the __Multiple Attachments__ Phase?

When babies take on the role of developing attachments with other figures.

How is Attachment Assessed?

* **The Strange Situation Procedure**
* Stimulates caregiver-infant interactions

What are the Attachment Styles?

* Secure (\~60%)


* Insecure - Avoidant (\~15%-20%)
* Insecure - Resistant/Anxious (\~15%-20%))
* Disorganized (\~5%-10%)

What is a __Secure Attachment__ Style?

Infant has an average attachment to their attachment figure, upset when mother is not present. Is weary when stranger walks in.

What is an __Insecure Avoidant__ Attachment Style?

Independent, not worried about attachment figure leaving/returning, or when stranger enters.

What is an __Insecure Resistant__ Attachment Style?

In need of attachment figure, however, may resist or seek comfort when attachment figure returns from leaving. Weary of stranger.

What is a __Disorganized__ Attachment Style?

Infant is confused in situations; avoids attachment figure when present, but resists when returns from leaving. Mix of Insecure styles.

What are the Long-Term Effects of Attachment Styles?

* “Continuity“ from preschool-adulthood
* __Securely__ attached infants: __Positive__ developmental / __Insecurely__ attached infants: __Negative__ developmental
* __Internal Working Model__ which is how a young child builds up a sense of emotional well-being through relationships

What is Delay Gratification?

* A child’s ability to give up/pass up short-term gains, for long-term rewards (__Marshmallow Experiment__)
* Early ability to delay gratification predicts success in future

What is Morality?

Principles/ideals that help individuals:

* Distinguish right from wrong (cognitive)
* Act on this distinction (behavioural)
* Feel pride in good conduct and guilt due to bad conduct (emotional)

What did Kohlberg contribute to Moral Development?

Moral Development Theory and the Levels of Moral Development.

What is Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory?

* Hypothetical Moral Dilemmas are faced by children
* The moral reasoning behind answers and explanations as to why children do/do not do things

What are the Levels of Moral Judgement?

1. Preconventional (S1,2)
2. Conventional (S3,4)
3. Postconventional (S5,6)

What is the __Preconventional__ Level of Moral Judgement?

When children morally judge based off punishments and rewards.

What is the __Conventional__ Level of Moral Judgement?

When children morally judge based off social approval, order, rules, and law.

What is the __Postconventional__ Level of Moral Judgement?

When children morally judge based off ethical principles and social contract/individual rights.