Comprehensive Psychology: Learning Theories, Classical & Operant Conditioning, and Observational Learning

What is learning?

The process of acquiring new information or behaviors through experience.

What is associative learning?

Learning that occurs when certain events occur together, such as in classical conditioning.

What is operant behavior?

Learning that occurs through the association between a response and its consequence.

What is cognitive learning?

Learning that involves the acquisition of mental information that guides behavior.

Who studied classical conditioning and won Russia's first Nobel Prize?

Ivan Pavlov.

What is behaviorism?

A psychological approach that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

What is a neutral stimulus (NS) in classical conditioning?

A stimulus that initially does not trigger a response.

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unconditioned response.

What is an unconditioned response (UR)?

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

What is acquisition in classical conditioning?

The initial stage where a neutral stimulus is linked with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger a conditioned response.

What is higher-order conditioning?

A procedure where a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

What is extinction in classical conditioning?

The diminishing of a conditioned response when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.

What is generalization in classical conditioning?

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

What is discrimination in classical conditioning?

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.

What principle did Edward L. Thorndike establish?

The law of effect, which states that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely.

What is an operant chamber (Skinner box)?

A chamber used in operant conditioning experiments to study animal behavior and reinforcement.

What did B.F. Skinner contribute to psychology?

He expanded on Thorndike's law of effect and developed principles of behavior control.

What is reinforcement in operant conditioning?

Any consequence that strengthens a behavior, making it more likely to occur.

What is punishment in operant conditioning?

Any consequence that weakens a behavior, making it less likely to occur.

How do everyday behaviors relate to operant conditioning?

They are continually reinforced and shaped by consequences.

What is reinforcement in the context of operant conditioning?

Any event that strengthens a preceding response.

What is shaping in operant conditioning?

Gradually guiding behavior toward closer approximations of the desired behavior using reinforcers.

What is positive reinforcement?

Increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers, which are stimuli that strengthen the response when presented after it.

What is negative reinforcement?

Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, which strengthens the response when removed after it.

What are primary reinforcers?

Unlearned, innately reinforcing stimuli that satisfy biological needs.

What are conditioned (secondary) reinforcers?

Stimuli that gain power through association with primary reinforcers.

What is the difference between immediate and delayed reinforcement?

Immediate reinforcement occurs right after a behavior, while delayed reinforcement involves a time delay between the desired response and the reward.

What is a continuous reinforcement schedule?

A pattern that reinforces the desired response every time it occurs.

What is a partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule?

A pattern that reinforces a response only part of the time, leading to slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.

What is positive punishment?

Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior to decrease its frequency.

What is negative punishment?

Removing a desired stimulus after an undesired behavior to decrease its frequency.

What are the four major drawbacks of physical punishment?

1) Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. 2) It may reinforce punishing behavior in parents. 3) It teaches discrimination among situations. 4) It can teach fear and increase aggression.

How is operant conditioning applied in schools?

Through computer and adaptive learning software to enhance teaching and learning.

How is operant conditioning applied in sports?

Behavioral methods are implemented to shape athletic performance.

How is operant conditioning applied in the workplace?

Rewards are used to increase productivity.

What is the first step in reinforcing desired behavior?

State a realistic goal in measurable terms.

What is instinctive drift in operant conditioning?

The tendency of animals to revert to biologically predisposed patterns, limiting their capacity for operant conditioning.

What is observational learning?

Learning that occurs by watching and imitating others, without direct experience.

Who is Albert Bandura?

The pioneer researcher of observational learning, known for the Bobo doll experiment.

What is modeling in the context of observational learning?

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

What are mirror neurons?

Neurons that fire when performing certain actions or observing another person doing so, believed to enable imitation and empathy.

What are prosocial effects of observational learning?

Behavior modeling that enhances learning of communication and social skills, promoting nonviolent behavior.

What are antisocial effects of observational learning?

Learning negative behaviors, such as aggression and unhealthy social norms, from observing others.