Studies

Val Gillies (2005) study

Differences in parenting for middle and working-class parents. Middle-class used a range of resources to support their children, focusing on social skills and education. Given positive sanctions such as treats if done well in school. This reinforced the idea that education is important. In direct contrast, working-class parents provided strategies to cope with poverty, low social status and violence. working-class parents focused on providing emotional strength and strategies to cope with injustice and hardship. They were less likely to teach their children that formal education should be highly valued.

Ann Oakley (1982)

Gender socialisation. Oakley argues that gender is largely socially constructed. Society teaches children what behaviours are considered appropriate for males and females through gender socialisation. Manipulation: parents encourage boys to be adventurous and independent, while girls may be encouraged to be gentle and not take risks. Positive sanctions: children are criticised, discouraged or punished for behaving in ways considered inappropriate for their gender. Canalisation: Refers to the way which parents channel interests into toys. e.g. boys action figures and girls dolls. Verbal appellation: Adults use different language to describe boys and girls e.g. “pretty girl/princess” and “brave boy”.

Howard Becker (1963)

Labelling theory: Our identity- how we see ourselves and how others see us- in some ways is created by others labelling us, that is, making decisions about what we are like and treating us accordingly. Becker believed that this lavel is likely to lead to us behaving as we have been labelled and thus conforming to others expectations of us. e.g. if a teacher thinks a student is very clever, they will treat them as such and they will try harder in order to fit that expectation. This is called self-fulfilling prophecy. This can work both positive and negative ways.

Smith et al

Peers are highly influential but can be sometimes negative. Study of cyber bullying found that 20% of their sample of about 100 children (who completed a questionnaire in 14 schools across groups 7-10) had experienced cyber bullying.

Paul Ghuman (1999)

Ethnicity & Primary socialisation: Many South Asian families placed strong importance on obedience- children were expected to obey parents and elders, respect- taught to respect elders and community members, loyalty- to family, Interedependence- children encouraged to see themselves as part of the wider family rather than as completely independent individuals. Parents use sanctions and role modelling to reinforce these values.

Waddington research (1999)

How canteen culture can help socialise police officers. Canteen culture is the term given to describe the informal culture of police officers as they hand around the station or spend their off-duty hours together. They learn from listening to other officers telling their ‘war stories’ -how they overcame tricky situations. These experienced officers acted as role models to new recruits who modelled themselves up the behaviour they saw. Waddington argues that this canteen chat helps police offenders deal with their stressful job. It boosts their occupational self-esteem by giving them a ‘heroic’ identity.

Charles Murray (1990)

Argues that single parent families are ‘inadequate socialisers’ because they do not have two role models, and lack of a father figure (90% of single parent families are female headed) is destructive for children as women cant discipline their children as well as women. Single parents who live on state benefits are at the heart of so-called ‘underclass’ that is supposedly socialising its children into a culture revolving around crime and delinquency, anti-authority, anti-work and anti-family life. Some commentators have suggested that African-Caribvean crime and urban riots might be due to ‘inferior’ socialisation in one-parent families (50% of African-Caribbean families are single parent families, compared to 25% for whites).

Sue Sharpe

Values may change over time. Young women in her research in 1970s valued marriage, love, and children, whereas by the 1990s their values had changed to prioritise careers, money and travel. Norms and values are clearly not innate but are constructed through socialisation and our environments.

Simpson

Norms differ depending on the place. He studied gay men in Manchester, and they described ‘de-gaying’ their identity in ‘heterospaces’ e.g. pub or shopping centre yet dressed and behaved more flamboyantly in safe spaces ‘homospaces’ such as gay bars.

Julie Burchill (2000)

Has been particularly critical of the practice of head covering for women within Islam, she commented, ‘such women carry round with them a mobile prison’.

Sherry Turkle (2011)

The increasing time we spend on social media is having a negative effect on our identity and relationships. Turkle calls our failure to communicate properly in life being ‘Alone together’. Same space; individual devices- less satisfying communications, breakdown of families and relationships. Turkle is critical of parents who role models poor behaviour themselves when constantly checking their own phones teaching children this level of disconnectedness within family life is normal.