Chapter 2: Political Ideas and Ideologies

Ideology

A structured set of ideas that serves as a foundation for political action. It provides a lens through which individuals and groups interpret the world and shape their efforts to either maintain, reform, or completely transform the current system of power and relationships in society.

1st Component of an Ideology

Explanation of the Existing Order: Ideologies present a worldview or a framework that helps people understand and interpret societal structures, relationships, and inequalities.

2nd Component of an Ideology

Vision of the Ideal Future: They articulate a concept of the "Good Society," offering a model for how society should ideally function.

3rd Component of an Ideology

Strategy for Political Change: Ideologies propose methods or pathways to achieve their vision, guiding political action and transformation.

What year was Ideology coined?

1796, by the French philosopher Destutt de Tracy. He used it to refer to a new 'science of ideas' that set out to uncover the origins of conscious thought and ideas.

Marxist Perspective on Ideology

It represents the dominant ideas of the ruling class, which reinforce the existing class system and perpetuate exploitation. These ideas reflect the interests of those who control society's material and intellectual resources.

Ruling Ideas

In The German Ideology (1846), Marx and Engels argued that the ruling class not only dominates the material aspects of society but also controls the means of intellectual production. This control ensures that their ideas become the "____," shaping societal norms and perceptions.

False Consciousness

Marx saw ideology as inherently deceptive. It creates a ____ among subordinate classes, particularly the proletariat, by obscuring the realities of class contradictions and exploitation. This prevents the working class from recognizing their oppressed condition and rising against the system.

Rationalism

The belief in the power of reason to explain and understand the world, assuming it has a rational structure.

Pragmatism

Emphasizing practical circumstances and goals, ____ implies skepticism toward abstract theories and ideologies.

Liberalism

The belief is that people should have the freedom to live their lives as they choose as long as they don't harm others. It values individual rights, equality, and fair government. ____ started as a way to fight against kings with too much power and unfair rules. Over time, it also became about creating systems where everyone could have opportunities, such as access to education, healthcare, and jobs.

John Locke

Was an English philosopher (1632-1704) who is considered one of the most important early thinkers of liberalism. He believed that all people have natural rights—the rights to life, liberty, and property—which come from God or nature. ____ argued that governments should protect these rights, and if they don't, people have the right to change their government.

Meta-ideology

A higher or second-order ideology that lays down the grounds on which ideological debate can take place. It doesn't tell you what to think but creates a space where people can debate their own ideologies, like liberalism, conservatism, or socialism. Liberalism is often called a ____ because it allows for a variety of views while focusing on freedom and fairness.

Key Ideas of Liberalism

Individualism, Freedom (Liberty), Reason, Equality, Toleration, Consent, and Constitutionalism.

Progress

Moving forward; the belief that history is characterized by human advancement based on the accumulation of knowledge and wisdom.

Meritocracy

Rule by the talented; the principle that rewards and positions should be distributed on the basis of ability.

Classical Liberalism

A political and economic philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom, limited government, and a free-market economy, believing that people should be free to pursue their own interests with minimal interference from the state.

Atomism

This idea suggests that society is made up of individuals who are mostly independent and self-sufficient. People owe little to one another because everyone is responsible for themselves.

Economic Liberalism

This is the belief that markets regulate themselves naturally and efficiently. ____ trust that a free market will create wealth and opportunities for everyone, as long as the government doesn't interfere.

Modern Liberalism

Emphasizes the importance of state intervention to address social and economic inequalities, promote individual well-being, and ensure that all people have the opportunity to achieve personal development and self-realization. It builds on the classical liberal commitment to individual freedom but redefines it as "positive freedom"—the capacity to live a fulfilling life, which may require government action to eliminate barriers like poverty, ignorance, and disease.

Big Government

A government that actively intervenes in the economy and society through regulations, social programs, and economic management.

Redistribution

The process of reducing income and wealth inequalities by using policies like progressive taxation and welfare programs.

Conservatism

Focused on preserving traditional social orders and values while resisting rapid or radical change. Emerging in the late 18th century as a reaction to upheavals like the French Revolution, it has two main forms: reactionary conservatism, which opposes reform entirely, and pragmatic conservatism, exemplified by Edmund Burke, which advocates gradual change to maintain stability.

Ancien Régime

Refers to the pre-revolutionary "old order," typically associated with absolutist monarchies and hierarchical societies that conservatives often sought to defend or restore.

Edmund Burke

(1729-97) was a Dublin-born statesman and political theorist, regarded as the father of Anglo-American conservatism. He coined the idea of "change in order to conserve," emphasizing that adapting traditions to meet new challenges is key to preserving societal stability. ____ believed government could prevent harm but rarely promote good and supported free-market economics as an expression of "natural law."

Paternalistic Conservatism

A significant strand of conservative thought that merges traditional conservative principles with a focus on social responsibility and reform. Its foundation lies in ideas such as organicism, hierarchy, and duty, making it an outgrowth of traditional conservatism. These principles reflect a belief in society as a living organism where each part has its role and responsibility, and hierarchies arise naturally to ensure order and stability.

Benjamin Disraeli

(1804-81), A British Conservative leader and Prime Minister. He highlighted the dangers of a divided society, famously warning about the emergence of "two nations: the Rich and the Poor." This concern reflected fears that unchecked inequalities could lead to social unrest or revolution. He argued that the privileged classes, in their interest and for the sake of social harmony, must recognize their duty to improve the conditions of the less fortunate.

Paternalism

Refers to an attitude or policy in which an authority (like a government, employer, or leader) takes actions for the well-being of others, assuming they cannot or will not make decisions in their own best interest. It is often compared to the relationship between a parent and a child, where the parent takes responsibility for the child's welfare. In politics, ____ implies care or intervention by the state or elite to protect and support those who are perceived as unable to help themselves.

Noblesse Oblige

(French for "nobility obliges") is the idea that privilege comes with responsibility. Specifically, those born into wealth, power, or social advantage have a moral obligation to act generously and responsibly toward those less fortunate.

Toryism

An ideological stance within conservatism, historically associated with the UK's Conservative Party. It emphasizes tradition, hierarchy, and loyalty to established institutions. ____ advocates for a society structured as an organic whole, where each part plays a role in maintaining stability.

Key Ideas of Conservatism

Tradition, Pragmatism, Human Imperfection, Organicism, Hierarchy, Authority, and Property.

Christian Democracy

A political ideology that blends traditional Christian values with democratic principles. Drawing from Catholic social teachings, it promotes social justice, the common good, and human dignity. Economically, it supports a social market economy, which balances private enterprise with government intervention to ensure that the benefits of economic growth are shared broadly across society.

The One-Nation Principle

A form of conservatism that seeks to bridge the gap between rich and poor to maintain social cohesion and stability. It emphasizes the idea that society should work as a unified whole, with the privileged taking responsibility for the welfare of the less fortunate. This approach advocates for moderate social reforms and a balanced economic policy that avoids the extremes of unregulated capitalism and state socialism, often described as "private enterprise without selfishness." It aims to prevent social division and revolution through gradual change and mutual obligation.

The New Right

A modern conservative movement that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s as a reaction against state intervention in the economy and liberal social values. It combines two key ideologies: neoliberalism, which emphasizes free markets and minimal government, and neoconservatism, which focuses on restoring traditional values and authority. Its goals include creating a strong but limited state, promoting individual responsibility, and rolling back government welfare programs.

Neoliberalism

An economic philosophy advocating for free markets, minimal state intervention, and individual responsibility. It champions private ownership and opposes government regulation, believing this fosters economic efficiency, growth, and personal freedom. ____ view welfare programs as creating dependency (a "nanny state") and prefer market-driven solutions.

Nanny State

Refers to a government that is overly involved in the personal lives of citizens through extensive welfare and regulatory programs. Critics argue it undermines individual freedom, fosters dependency, and discourages self-reliance.

Neoconservatism

Emphasizes traditional social values, authority, and cultural cohesion. It reacts against the perceived moral permissiveness of the 1960s and supports strong national identity and family values. ____ are wary of multiculturalism and supranational organizations, often favoring nationalism.

Permissiveness

The idea of allowing individuals to make their own moral decisions without interference or imposition of traditional values. Critics argue that ____ leads to moral relativism and societal decline, as it rejects authoritative or universal moral standards.

Friedrich von Hayek

(1899-1992) A renowned Austrian economist and political philosopher who contributed significantly to economic and political thought. He is best known for his strong advocacy of individual freedom, free-market economics, and his critique of socialism and government intervention.

Socialism

An economic and political system that advocates for shared ownership of resources and wealth to promote equality and reduce economic disparities. It emerged in the 19th century as a response to industrial capitalism, which created significant social and economic inequalities.

Revisionism

Refers to modifying or reinterpreting established beliefs or theories, often in a way that softens or changes their original intent. In socialism, it typically involves rejecting revolutionary methods in favor of gradual reform through democratic means.

Marxism

A political and economic theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It analyzes society through class struggles and predicts that capitalism will eventually be replaced by socialism and then communism.

Leninism

Form of Marxism developed by Vladimir Lenin, emphasizing the need for a vanguard party—a small, disciplined group of revolutionary leaders—to guide the working class to overthrow capitalism and establish socialism.

Stalinism

Refers to the policies and governance style of Joseph Stalin, characterized by a centrally planned economy, strict political control, and the use of oppression and violence to maintain authority. It emphasizes rapid industrialization and collective agriculture.

Dialectical Materialism

A Marxist theory that explains social and historical changes as the result of conflicts between opposing forces (dialectics), rooted in material (economic) conditions rather than ideas or morality.

Classical Marxism

The original form of Marxism developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It views history as shaped by economic systems and class struggles, where each economic system (like feudalism or capitalism) contains contradictions that eventually lead to its collapse. In capitalism, this conflict is between the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat). Marx predicted that this struggle would lead to a proletarian revolution, eventually resulting in a stateless, classless communist society.

Historical Materialism

The Marxist theory that the way societies organize their economies (their "material conditions") determines everything else, like laws, culture, and politics. Changes in economic systems, often driven by class conflict, are what drive historical progress.

Dictatorship of the Proletariat

A temporary stage after a proletarian revolution where the working class controls the state. Its purpose is to defend against counter-revolution and guide society toward communism, where there will no longer be any class distinctions or a need for a state.

Karl Marx

(1818-83) German thinker who is considered the "father" of modern communism. He studied philosophy and economics and became deeply involved in the socialist movement. After being forced to leave his home country, he moved to London, where he worked as a revolutionary writer with the help of his close collaborator Friedrich Engels.

Orthodox Communism

A strict version of communism based on the ideas of Karl Marx and modified by Lenin and Stalin. It includes the belief in a vanguard party to lead the revolution and a centrally planned economy where the state controls all resources. Stalin's rule shaped orthodox communism into a system with no private enterprise, state-controlled agriculture, and a totalitarian government.

Perestroika

A Russian term meaning "restructuring." It refers to reforms in the Soviet Union under Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s, aimed at making the economy more efficient and allowing some political freedom, while still keeping the communist system.

Herbert Marcuse

(1898-1979) A German political philosopher and social theorist who helped found the Frankfurt School. After fleeing Nazi Germany, he moved to the USA and became influential in the 1960s as a key figure for the New Left and student movements. Marcuse argued that modern industrial society suppresses dissent and absorbs opposition, and he believed that social change would come from marginalized groups rather than the working class. His notable works include Reason and Revolution, Eros and Civilization, and One-Dimensional Man.

Neo-Marxism

A modernized and more flexible version of Marxism that emphasizes the role of human agency and cultural factors in shaping history, rather than focusing solely on economics and class struggle. Influenced by thinkers like Georg Lukács and Antonio Gramsci, ____ highlights concepts like capitalism's dehumanization of workers (reification) and how power is maintained through cultural and ideological dominance (hegemony). ____ include members of the Frankfurt School, such as Herbert Marcuse, who blended Marxist ideas with other disciplines like Freudian psychology and Hegelian philosophy.

Eduard Bernstein

(1850-1932) A German socialist and key figure in revising Marxism to fit modern times. Bernstein argued for a peaceful transition to socialism through democratic reforms instead of revolution, challenging the idea of inevitable class struggle. Influenced by British Fabianism, he emphasized gradual progress, detailed in his book Evolutionary Socialism. Bernstein is considered a founder of modern social democracy and worked briefly in government during post-World War I Germany.

Social Democracy

A political ideology that seeks to balance capitalism and state intervention to achieve social justice. It accepts capitalism as the primary way to generate wealth but emphasizes wealth distribution based on moral principles. ____ focuses on helping the vulnerable through policies like welfare systems, redistribution, and state regulation of the economy. Historically associated with Keynesian economics after World War II, it has evolved to adapt to modern challenges like globalization and changing class structures.

Fundamentalist Socialism

A form of socialism that aims to completely abolish capitalism and replace it with a fundamentally different system based on collective ownership and the absence of private property.

John Rawls

(1921-2002) An American political philosopher known for his theory of "justice as fairness," presented in A Theory of Justice (1970). Rawls argued that social inequalities are acceptable only if they benefit the least advantaged. He believed most people would prefer an egalitarian society if they were unaware of their own social position. His ideas have greatly influenced liberal and social democratic thought. Other works include Political Liberalism and The Laws of Peoples.

'New' Social Democracy

A modernized version of social democracy that blends traditional social-democratic values with aspects of neoliberalism. It emphasizes a dynamic market economy, globalization, and a "knowledge economy" driven by technology and skills. It shifts from state-led restructuring to fostering competitiveness through education and skills development. Instead of focusing on full equality, it promotes equality of opportunity and meritocracy, endorsing welfare reforms that encourage self-reliance, such as workfare programs.

Third Way

A political approach that seeks a middle ground between capitalism and socialism. Now associated with modernized social democracy, it rejects old-style state-centered socialism for being outdated in a market-driven economy and opposes neoliberalism for its lack of social responsibility. The third way advocates for balancing market efficiency with social cohesion and moral values.

Fascism

A 20th-century political ideology characterized by extreme nationalism, authoritarianism, and the rejection of values like individual freedom, equality, and democracy. ____ emphasizes the unity and strength of the nation, demanding absolute loyalty to the state or a leader. It glorifies struggle, war, and heroism, often promoting the idea of a "new man" devoted to the nation's glory. ____ opposes liberalism, socialism, and communism. Italian Fascism focused on total state control, while German Nazism added racial superiority and anti-Semitism, leading to the Holocaust.

Adolf Hitler

(1889-1945) The Nazi leader of Germany from 1933 to 1945. Hitler rose to power by leading the Nazi Party and establishing a dictatorship. He promoted German nationalism and extreme anti-Semitism, claiming an endless battle between Germans ("the master race") and Jews. His policies caused World War II and the Holocaust, which resulted in the deaths of millions, including six million Jews.

Anarchism

A political ideology that opposes all forms of political authority, especially the state, viewing it as unnecessary and harmful. ____ believe in a stateless society where individuals manage their affairs through voluntary cooperation. ____ combines ideas from both liberal individualism, focusing on personal freedom, and socialist communitarianism, emphasizing community and equality.

Anarcho-Capitalism

An anarchist tradition that advocates for a society where unregulated market competition governs all social arrangements. In this view, the state is unnecessary because the free market can organize society without government intervention, with individual freedom and property rights at the core.

Mutualism

A system where individuals or groups exchange goods and services on the basis of fairness and equality, without exploitation or profiteering. It emphasizes cooperative exchange and mutual benefit rather than competition or profit.

Anarcho-Communism

An anarchist tradition that supports common ownership of resources and means of production. It links the idea of a stateless society to the goal of a classless society, where people work together for the common good, without private ownership or government control.

Feminism

A movement and ideology that aims to achieve gender equality and improve the social role of women. ____ believe that society is marked by gender inequality, and they seek to overturn male dominance and empower women in all aspects of life.

Liberal Feminism

A feminist tradition focused on achieving equal rights for women and men in the public realm, such as politics, education, and the workplace. It advocates for gender equality based on the idea that all individuals, regardless of gender, should have equal access to opportunities and rights.

Socialist Feminism

A feminist tradition that links gender inequality to capitalism. Socialist feminists argue that the economic system exploits women, especially in domestic roles, and seek to restructure economic life to achieve gender equality by addressing both patriarchy and capitalism.

Radical Feminism

A feminist tradition that views patriarchy as the root cause of gender inequality. Radical feminists believe that fundamental social changes are needed to overthrow patriarchy, with a focus on transforming personal, domestic, and family life. The slogan "the personal is political" reflects their belief in the importance of changing personal dynamics to achieve gender equality.

Mary Wollstonecraft

(1759-1797) A pioneering UK feminist and social theorist, known for her book A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), which argued for the equal rights of women, particularly in education. Wollstonecraft's work laid the foundation for modern feminist thought, emphasizing that women should have the same opportunities as men. She was married to anarchist William Godwin and was the mother of Mary Shelley, author of Frankenstein.

Green Politics

A political ideology focused on environmental protection and sustainability. It critiques the harm caused by industrialization and economic development, aiming to protect nature and ensure the survival of the human species. ____ often emphasizes an ecocentric worldview, where humans are seen as part of nature, rather than the center of it.

Anthropocentrism

The belief that human needs and interests are of the highest moral and philosophical importance. It places humans at the center of moral consideration, viewing nature primarily as a resource for human use, which contrasts with ecocentrism, which values the natural world independently of human needs.

Holism

The belief that the whole is more important than its individual parts. It suggests that understanding comes from studying the relationships between parts within a system, rather than isolating and analyzing parts independently.

Ecologism

A political ideology rooted in the principles of ecology, which studies the relationship between organisms and their environment. ____ emphasizes the idea that humans are part of nature and advocates for a biocentric perspective, recognizing the importance of protecting the environment for its own sake, not just for human benefit.

Cosmopolitanism

The belief in a global community where people have moral obligations to others regardless of nationality, ethnicity, or religion. It emphasizes that all individuals are part of a larger world and advocates for universal rights, often seen in the context of human rights or global social justice.

World Government

The idea of uniting all of humanity under a single political authority, which could be a central world government with supreme power or a federal system where authority is shared with nation-states. It seeks to create a unified political system at the global level.

Postcolonialism

A movement in literary, cultural, and political studies that seeks to understand and challenge the lingering effects of colonialism, especially in terms of culture and psychology. It highlights the continued impact of colonial domination even after political independence and often advocates for the recognition and legitimacy of non-western perspectives and traditions.

Non-Aligned Movement

An organization of countries, founded in 1961, that aimed to remain neutral and avoid formal political and economic alliances with either the capitalist West or the communist East during the Cold War.

Fundamentalism

A belief system that holds certain principles as unquestionable truths with absolute authority, often associated with religion but also found in political ideologies. It can be rigid and dogmatic.

Religious Fundamentalism

A strict adherence to the literal interpretation of religious texts and the belief that religious principles should govern all aspects of society and politics. It is often associated with political movements, like Islamic fundamentalism.

Jihad

An Arabic term meaning "holy struggle" or "effort," referring to the intense devotion to Islamic principles, sometimes associated with armed struggle for religious or political goals.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

(1869-1948), Mahatma Gandhi was a prominent Indian leader who fought for India's independence from British rule. He trained as a lawyer in the UK and later worked in South Africa, where he organized protests against discrimination. Upon returning to India in 1915, he became the leader of the independence movement, using non-violent resistance, called satyagraha, to bring about change. Gandhi believed in truth and unity among all people, based on his Hindu beliefs. He was assassinated in 1948 by a Hindu extremist, shortly after India gained independence in 1947.

Asian Values

A set of values that emphasize social harmony, respect for authority, and the importance of the family, often attributed to Asian cultures and societies, especially in contrast to Western ideals of individualism.

Beyond Dualism

A philosophical perspective, common in non-western traditions like Buddhism and Taoism, that challenges the idea of strict opposites (such as mind/body or good/evil), promoting a view of interconnectedness and unity.

Dualism

The belief that reality is made up of two opposing principles, such as mind and matter, or good and evil, which are seen as separate and distinct from each other.