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What dominated American diplomacy and politics in the 1840s?
Territorial expansion.
Where did settlers go to and what were the effects?
They went into the still-disputed Oregon Country, which aggravated relations with Britain as it had staked its own claims in the Pacific Northwest.
Why did tensions between Mexico and the US increase?
They wanted to annex Texas to the Union but Mexico regarded Texas as a Mexican province.
Who was the president in 1841?
President William Henry Harrison. He was known as “Old Tippecanoe.”
What happened after Harrison got elected into presidency in 1841?
In early 1841, a crowd of hard-cider supporters swarmed Washington, demanding government jobs. The newly elected President Harrison, overwhelmed by the chaos, was nearly hounded to death by eager Whig office seekers.
Who were the true leaders of the Whig and how did they view Harrison?
The real leaders of the Whig party viewed "Old Tippecanoe" (William Henry Harrison) as little more than a symbolic figurehead. Daniel Webster, serving as secretary of state, and Henry Clay, a powerful Whig leader and skilled senator, were seen as the true leaders. Harrison, however, eventually had to remind the ambitious Clay that he, as president, held the ultimate authority in the administration.
Why did Clay and Webster’s plans fail?
Harrison got pneumonia and died just after 4 weeks in office.
Who replaced Harrison as president?
Virginian gentleman John Tyler. Tyler was known for his kindness and graciousness but was also unwavering in his principles. He had previously resigned from the Senate rather than follow orders from the Virginia legislature, and he had left the Democratic Party because of his disdain for Andrew Jackson's authoritarian style.
What did Tyler’s critics accuse of of?
Tyler’s critics accused him of being a Democrat in Whig clothing, and while that charge had some truth, it wasn't entirely accurate. The Whig party, like the Democratic party, was a broad coalition, and Tyler belonged to the minority wing, which aligned with states' rights and Jeffersonian ideals—views often held by influential Southern gentry. His inclusion on the Whig ticket was largely to appeal to this group.
How did Tyler’s views clash with the Whigs?
while the Whig party had no formal platform, it was clear to all politicians what the Whigs stood for: a pro-bank, pro-protective tariff, and pro-internal improvements stance. Tyler, however, strongly disagreed with these positions. His views were more aligned with those of the Democrats than the majority of his Whig colleagues.
What were the economic views of the Whig Congress?
Financial reform was a priority, and the Whig Congress moved quickly to end the independent treasury system, which President Tyler signed (showed their strong nationalist program)
How did the view on banks between Clay and Tyler clash?
Clay pushed through a bill for a new Bank of the United States, but Tyler, notorious for his opposition to centralized banking, vetoed it. Clay, frustrated by his repeated failures to gain the presidency, was unwilling to compromise, leading to Tyler’s veto.
What were the effects of Tyler vetoing the “Fiscal Bank"?
When Tyler vetoed the "Fiscal Bank," the Whigs tried again with a "Fiscal Corporation" bill, but Tyler vetoed this as well. The vetoes angered Whig extremists, who insulted him and burned him in effigy. Many even threatened his life. The Whigs expelled Tyler from the party, and there were talks of impeachment. His entire cabinet resigned, except for Secretary of State Webster, who was working on negotiations with England.
What was the Tariff of 1842?
Tyler strongly opposed the proposed Whig tariff, particularly because it included a provision to distribute revenue from public land sales to the states. As a former Democrat, Tyler saw no reason to waste federal funds when the Treasury wasn't flush with cash. He used his veto power to block the tariff. The tariff was then revised as the land distribution clause was removed and tariff rates were reduced. Tyler, though not in favor of a protective tariff, understood the need for more revenue and reluctantly signed the Tariff of 1842.
What were the causes of anti-British sentiment in the 19th century?
It was caused particularly by the Anglo-American wars. Additionally, the demise of the pro-British Federalists allowed the populist Jacksonian Democrats to dominate American politics, further stoking resentment toward Britain. British travelers described what they saw as the uncivilized aspects of American life—such as tobacco chewing, slavery, and acts of violence—in negative terms. Their travel books, which were widely read in both Britain and America, stirred further anger and resentment, deepening the animosity between the two nations.
What was the “THird War with England'“?
A war of words between the British and Americans. (literary battle between the two)
Why was America being a borrowing nation and imperial Britain being a lending nation create tensions?
In the nineteenth century, America, with its vast territory and the need for expensive infrastructure like canals and railroads, became a borrowing nation. Meanwhile, imperial Britain, with its wealth, was a lending nation. This created tension, as the wealthy creditors were often disliked by the struggling debtors. When the panic of 1837 hit, and some American states failed to pay back their debts, or even refused to, the British were upset and criticized the Americans for being dishonest.
What happened in 1837?
In 1837, a brief but intense insurrection broke out in Canada, though it was supported by a small minority and had little chance of success. Despite this, many Americans, eager to fight against their old British enemy, volunteered supplies and military support. The Washington government struggled to enforce its neutrality laws,
What escalated the situation in Canada?
The situation escalated when a provocative incident occurred on the Canadian frontier. An American steamer, the Caroline, was delivering supplies to the Canadian rebels when it was attacked by British forces on the New York shore. The British set the ship on fire.
What occured in 1841 that increased tensions between the US and Britain?
when British officials in the Bahamas granted asylum to 130 Virginia slaves who had rebelled and seized the American ship Creole. The British had abolished slavery in 1833, which raised fears among Southerners that Britain's Caribbean territories could become havens for runaway slaves, much like Canada had been.
What was the Aroostook War?
The Aroostook War was a small-scale conflict in the early 1840s that arose from a boundary dispute between the United States and Britain over the Maine-Canada border. The British wanted to build a road from Halifax to Québec, but the proposed route passed through territory claimed by Maine, based on the 1783 peace treaty. Lumberjacks from both Maine and Canada clashed in the disputed Aroostook River valley, leading to fights and the mobilization of militias from both sides.
How was the disagreement surrounding the Maine boundary solved?
Lord Ashburton and Daneil Webster reached a compromise, with the U.S. retaining about 7,000 of the 12,000 square miles in question, and the British securing the desired road from Halifax to Québec. The treaty also resolved the Caroline affair diplomatically.
How did Mexico react to Texas delcaring indepdence in 1836?
Mexico refused to recognize Texas’s indepdence and viewed it as a rebellious province to be reconquered. Mexico issued threats of war if the U.S. were to extend protection to Texas.
What political reasons were why Britain interested was in an independent Texas?
Britain had a keen interest in an independent Texas because it could serve as a counterbalance to the growing power of the United States. An independent Texas could limit the southward expansion of the U.S., which posed a continuous threat to British territories in the Americas. By supporting Texas as a puppet republic, Britain could potentially use it as a tool to weaken American power, creating tensions between the U.S. and Texas that would distract the U.S. and provide an opportunity for foreign powers to assert influence in the Western Hemisphere, thus challenging the Monroe Doctrine.
What economic reasons were why Britain interested was in an independent Texas?
British merchants and manufacturers also had economic interests in Texas. They saw the territory as a potential free-trade zone, offering an alternative to the tariff-heavy United States. Furthermore, the vast plains of Texas were viewed as an important future source of cotton, which would reduce Britain's reliance on American cotton. This would be especially valuable if relations with the U.S. ever soured, potentially cutting off cotton supplies in times of conflict.
What was a leading issue in the presidential campaign of 1844?
The issue of Texas became a major topic in the presidential campaign of 1844, partly due to fears stirred by British involvement in the region. Those opposed to expansion criticized the idea of annexing Texas, while some southern advocates argued that annexation was crucial for preserving the Union, even shouting, “Texas or Disunion.” The pro-expansion Democrats, led by James K. Polk, ultimately defeated the Whigs, who were led by Henry Clay. After the election, outgoing President John Tyler, interpreting the narrow Democratic victory (albeit with questionable reasoning) as a mandate for expansion, moved forward with plans to annex Texas.
How did President Tyler play a significant role in securing the annexation of Texas?
. Many antislavery Whigs were concerned that adding Texas to the Union would strengthen the "slave power." Recognizing the difficulty of gaining the necessary two-thirds Senate vote for a treaty, Tyler turned to a joint resolution, which only required a simple majority in both houses of Congress. After a heated debate, the resolution passed in early 1845, and Texas was officially invited to become the 28th state in the United States.
Why was Mexico angry over the annexation of Texas?
Mexico's anger over the annexation of Texas was based on the belief that the U.S. had taken what was still considered Mexican territory. While it was true that Texas had been part of Mexico in 1836, by 1845, it was no longer under Mexican control. Despite this, Mexico refused to recognize Texas's independence and its right to join the United States. As time passed, it became clear that Mexico was unlikely to be able to reconquer Texas, but the continued existence of Texas as an independent republic created instability. Its independence invited foreign influence that posed risks for the United States, making it a potential catalyst for conflict both in North America and Europe.
Why did the US want to annex Texas?
Texas was so close, wealthy, and appealing, and it seemed eager to join the U.S. Given these factors, it’s hard to imagine any other power turning down the opportunity to claim Texas. While the Texas Revolution had its own unique circumstances, the U.S. can't be accused of rushing into annexation. After all, it took a reasonable nine years between the start of the process and the actual annexation, a fair amount of time for any "courtship" to unfold.
What was the Oregon Country like?
The Oregon Country was a vast and wild region, stretching from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, and from California to the 54° 40' line—near the southern tip of present-day Alaska. Over time, this enormous area was claimed by four countries: Spain, Russia, Britain, and the United States, each of which had territorial interests at various points in history.
How was the US able to get claims to the Oregon Country?
Spain and Russia eventually dropped out of the competition for the Oregon Country. Spain, the first to claim the region, gave up its claims to the United States in the 1819 Florida Treaty. Russia, after treaties in 1824 and 1825 with both the U.S. and Britain, agreed to retreat to the 54° 40' line, essentially limiting its claims to the area near Alaska. This left Britain and the United States as the remaining contenders for Oregon.
What were Britain’s claims to the Oregon Country like?
Britain’s claims were strong, especially for the land north of the Columbia River. They based their claims on prior exploration, treaty rights, and actual occupation. The Hudson’s Bay Company, a powerful British trading organization, was particularly active in the region, trading furs with Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest.
What were the United State’s claims to the Oregon Country like?
American explorers like Captain Robert Gray, who discovered the Columbia River in 1792, and the famous Lewis and Clark expedition (1804–1806) helped establish an American presence in the region. By the 1830s, missionaries and settlers had begun to move into the fertile Willamette Valley, south of the Columbia River. These settlers, many of whom were missionaries, played a key role in both converting Native Americans and solidifying American control over Oregon. Their efforts sparked interest in the territory, which many Americans had previously thought would remain unsettled for much longer.
How did American and British pioneers live together in the Oregon Country?
In Oregon, American and British pioneers continued to live peacefully side by side for many years. During the negotiations for the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, the U.S. had proposed dividing the territory at the 49th parallel, but the British, who saw the Columbia River as crucial to the region, refused to give it up. Instead, they agreed to a “joint occupation” arrangement, where both nations could settle the area while awaiting a future resolution.
What was the Oregon fever?
In the early 1840s, the number of American settlers in Oregon exploded as "Oregon fever" took hold. Hundreds of pioneers, many traveling in covered wagons along the Oregon Trail, began to settle in the Willamette Valley. By 1846, about 5,000 Americans had settled south of the Columbia River, including some rugged individuals known for their skills with weapons like the bowie knife and revolver. In contrast, the British only had about 700 settlers north of the river. With the American population rapidly growing, the British realized they needed to reach a settlement before they were overwhelmed.
What were the proposals by Britain and the US like on the issue of the Oregon Country?
By 1845, only a small portion of the Oregon Country was actually in dispute—specifically, the area between the Columbia River, the 49th parallel, and the Pacific Ocean. Britain had proposed the Columbia River as the boundary, while the U.S. repeatedly offered the 49th parallel. This issue became a key point in the 1844 presidential election, but it was overshadowed by the more pressing matter of Texas annexation.
Who were the candidates for the election of 1844?
In May 1844, both major political parties chose their candidates for president. Henry Clay, a highly popular but often thwarted politician, was enthusiastically nominated by the Whigs in Baltimore. The Democratic Party, however, was initially in disarray. Martin Van Buren's opposition to annexing Texas led to his defeat, as the party was largely controlled by southern expansionists who favored Texas annexation. Eventually, the Democrats turned to James K. Polk of Tennessee, who became America’s first "dark-horse" or "surprise" presidential candidate.
Who was James K. Polk and what was he like?
He was not an unkonwn or unqualified politician. He had served as Speaker of the House for four years and as governor of Tennessee for two terms. A determined, hardworking, and shrewd leader, he was backed by his friend and political mentor, Andrew Jackson. Democrats promoted him as “Young Hickory,” drawing a parallel to Jackson’s nickname, “Old Hickory.”
What is Manifest Destiny and how did it affect the campaign of 1844?
The 1844 campaign was fueled by the powerful belief in Manifest Destiny—the idea that it was America's God-given mission to expand across the continent. Many Americans in the 1840s and 1850s saw this expansion as both inevitable and righteous, believing they were meant to spread democracy and civilization. Some even envisioned expansion beyond North America, into South America. This ideology conveniently blended both noble ideals and practical land hunger, merging the concepts of empire and liberty into a single, compelling vision.
How did Manifest Destiny affect the Democrats?
Expansionist Democrats were deeply influenced by the fervor of Manifest Destiny and made their stance clear in the 1844 campaign. They called for the "Reannexation of Texas" and the "Reoccupation of Oregon"—demanding the entire Oregon Territory up to latitude 54°40'. Outshouting the Whigs in the battle of campaign slogans, they rallied behind "All of Oregon or None." (The more famous slogan "Fifty-four forty or fight" actually emerged two years later in 1846.)
Democrats also attacked Henry Clay, branding him a "corrupt bargainer," a dissolute character, and a slaveowner. Ironically, their own candidate, James K. Polk, also owned slaves—making this criticism a clear case of hypocrisy.
What were the Whigs’ views towards Manifest Destiny?
They were against it and also the territoral expansion into Texas and the Southwest.
What were Henry Clay’s views towards the issue of Texas and how did it affect his campaign?
Henry Clay tried to take both sides, a move that ultimately cost him the presidency. The "Great Compromiser" wrote a series of letters that sent mixed signals—suggesting that while he personally favored annexing Texas (to appeal to the South), he also supported postponing it (to appease the North). This attempt to balance both sides may have saved him from losing even more support, but it alienated strong antislavery voters and hurt his chances in the election.
WHo won the election of 1844?
James K. Polk
What was the Liberty Party?
a pre-Civil War American political party dedicated solely to the abolition of slavery, formed in the 1840s, and known for its strong stance against the expansion of slavery into new territories,
What were the major issues addressed in the election of 1844?
Oregon, Texas, the tariff, slavery, the national bank, and internal improvements
What did president JOhn Tyler do as one of his final acts in office?
He pusehd through a joint resolution to annex Texas
How did James K. Polk like as a president?
he was an incredibly determined leader. Polk was serious, hardworking, and intensely driven, often pushing himself so hard that he died prematurely.
He struggled with delegating authority, preferring to handle matters himself, which added to his burdens. Though not brilliant, he was methodical, shrewd, and persistent—qualities that helped him accomplish his ambitious goals.
What was Polk’s plan as president?
He had a four-point plan and completed all four goals within 4 years.
What was one of Polk’s goal?
vOne of Polk’s four key goals was lowering the tariff, and his Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, crafted a tariff-for-revenue bill to achieve that. The Walker Tariff of 1846 reduced average rates from 32% to 25%, gaining strong support from the South, which favored low tariffs.
However, Clay’s supporters in New England and the middle states fiercely opposed it, fearing it would cripple American manufacturing. Despite their dire warnings, the Walker Tariff proved highly successful, thanks to economic boom times and increased imports, which boosted federal revenue rather than reducing it.
What was Polk’s second objective?
Another goal of President Polk was to bring back the independent treasury system, which the Whigs had abolished in 1841. Pro-bank Whigs in Congress strongly opposed the idea, but after a tough battle, Polk finally succeeded in reinstating it in 1846.
What were the thrid and fourth goals that Polk wanted to achieve?
Aquiring California and the settlement of the Oregon dispute.
What did northern Democrats support?
reoccuyping all of Oregon.
What were southern Dems views on the Oregon issue?
After the annexation of TExas, they lost interest. Polk, a southerner himself, had no intention of insisting on the "54° 40'" line (the northern boundary of Oregon that had been a campaign slogan). Instead, feeling bound by prior negotiations with Britain, he offered a compromise line of 49°. The British minister in Washington initially rejected this offer.
What did the British do in 1846?
They relized that the Columbia River wasn’t as important as they thought and so they offered the 49 degree line to the US. Polk, still angry from the earlier rejection, left the decision to the Senate. The Senate quickly approved the treaty, despite some protests from those who still wanted all of Oregon. The fact that the U.S. was already in a war with Mexico likely influenced their decision.
Why did the US settle for less of Oregon when it had taken all of Texas?
Great Britain is powerful and Mexico is weak
Why was Califronia a major concern for President Polk?
He and other supporters of Manifest Destiny had long desired its fertile valleys and, especially, the strategic bay of San Francisco, which many saw as America’s future gateway to the Pacific. He believed that American settlers could soon bring California into the Union, similar to how Texas had been incorporated.
How did Mexico view Polk’s wanting to buy California?
Polk was eager to buy California from Mexico, but relations with Mexico were strained. Their unstable government also failed to pay their debt to the US. Additionally, after the U.S. annexed Texas, Mexico severed diplomatic relations and threatened war over the move. There was also a dispute over the boundary of Texas. Mexico considered the Nueces River the border, while Texas claimed the more southern Rio Grande. In late 1845, Polk sent John Slidell to Mexico City with an offer of up to $25 million for California and the surrounding territory. However, the Mexican government rejected Slidell’s offer outright, refusing even to hear the proposal, which they considered insulting.
How did President Polk react to Mexico’s refusal to sell California?
President Polk decided to provoke a confrontation. On January 13, 1846, he ordered General Zachary Taylor and 4,000 men to march from the Nueces River to the Rio Grande, dangerously close to Mexican forces. Polk expected a clash at any moment, but when none occurred, he told his cabinet on May 9, 1846, that he planned to ask Congress to declare war, citing (1) unpaid claims and (2) the rejection of Slidell's offer. However, these reasons were flimsy, and two cabinet members suggested it would be better if Mexican troops fired first.
WHat happened on April 25, 1846?
Mexican troops had attacked General Taylor’s command. This gave Polk the justification he needed. He sent a strong war message to Congress, declaring that American blood had been shed on American soil and that hostilities had been forced upon the U.S. Congress, stirred by patriotism, overwhelmingly supported the war.
How did Northern Whigs view the war Polk declared against Mexico?
Even many Northern Whigs, who were traditionally anti-slavery, joined in the call for war, though they later criticized Polk, calling it “Jimmy Polk’s war.”
How did Polk justify the war?
He justified the war by claiming that American blood had been shed on American soil, though, as a historian, he would have acknowledged that the land in question was contested, and Mexico had a valid claim to it.
How did Abraham Lincoln view the war declared by Polk?
As a young Whig congressman from Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, introduced resolutions demanding to know the exact location where American blood had been shed, earning him the nickname "spotty Lincoln."
What was Polk’s primary goal?
Polk’s primary goal was to acquire California, not to wage war. However, when war became inevitable, he hoped to keep it limited and end it as soon as California was secured. In a surprising and controversial move, Polk allowed the exiled Mexican dictator, Santa Anna, to return to Mexico with the condition that he would help America by making peace. Santa Anna promised to sell out his country, but once back in Mexico, he betrayed Polk’s trust and rallied Mexicans to defend their land.
What was the California Bear Flag Republic?
The California Bear Flag Republic was a short-lived republic declared by local Americans in California in 1846, who hoisted the Bear Flag. Captain John C. Frémont, an explorer who was in California at the time, collaborated with American naval officers and these local Americans to overthrow Mexican rule in the region.
Who was General Zachary Taylor and what did he do?
He was an American general who was sent to Mexico. After crossing the Rio Grande into Mexico, Taylor’s forces won several battles, culminating in the Battle of Buena Vista in February 1847. He earned the title of “Hero of Buena Vista.” Many believed his success would lead to him being elected president in 1848.
How did America plan to end the war?
To end the war decisively, American strategy called for an attack on Mexico City. While Taylor had been successful in northern Mexico, his forces were too small for a final victory. The task of leading the main invasion fell to General Winfield Scott, who took command of the operation from Veracruz in early 1847. Scott managed a brilliant campaign, reaching Mexico City by September 1847.
How did Polk plan to end the war?
He sent Nicholas P. Trist, the chief clerk of the State Department, along with General Winfield Scott's invading army to negotiate. They worked together to arrange an armistice with the Mexican leader, Santa Anna. However, that failed, and Polk became frustrated with Trist'‘s handling of negotiations and recalled him.
How was the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed and what did it entail?
Although Polk tried to recall Trist, he decided to continue negotiations, and, on February 2, 1848, signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The treaty had significant terms: it confirmed the American claim to Texas and ceded a vast area stretching westward to Oregon and the Pacific Ocean, including California. This territory, roughly half of Mexico, was purchased for $15 million, and the U.S. agreed to assume $3.25 million in claims from American citizens against Mexico. Polk submitted the treaty to the Senate for approval. While Trist's actions were frustrating, he had largely followed his instructions, and speed was crucial.
How did people view the war towards the end of it?
The war became unpopular, especially among antislavery Whigs (the “Mexican Whigs” or “Conscience Whigs”). They were vocally condemning the war and threatening to block military supplies in Congress. Had they succeeded, it could have led to American retreat and a loss of the war's gains.
Why was the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe HIdalgo opposed?
it faced opposition from both those who wanted all of Mexico and those who opposed any further territorial expansion.
What were the effects of the Mexican War?
The Mexican War, despite being relatively small in terms of casualties, with around thirteen thousand American lives lost, mostly due to disease, resulted in profound consequences. The U.S. gained about one-third more territory, including Texas, California, and the Southwest, a land acquisition even more substantial than the Louisiana Purchase. This expansion fueled the spirit of Manifest Destiny, intensifying Americans' desire to spread across the continent.
Which important officers that would later lead the Union and Confederate armies during the Civil War participate in the Mexican War?
Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee
How did the Mexican War negatively affect the US?
It was ruinous to US-Latin American relations. The war also reignited the debate over slavery, which had significant political repercussions in the United States.
What was the Wilmot Proviso and what were its effecst?
The Wilmot Proviso, introduced by Representative David Wilmot in 1846, aimed to ban slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico. While it was never passed into law, it became a symbol of the growing divide between North and South, fueling tensions over the extension of slavery into new territories. Southern members were unwilling to be robbed of prospective slave states. The dispute would culminate in the Civil War, with the Mexican War serving as the opening chapter in this larger national conflict.
What overshadowed the phsyical rewards of the war (aquiring California and the Southwest)?
the moral and political challenges that arose, particularly the divisive issue of slavery. The conflict with Mexico left a legacy that would continue to shape American politics, contributing to the sectional strife that led to the Civil War.
