BIOMOLECULES (copy)

Chemical analysis

The process of analyzing the chemical composition of a substance or sample.

Acid-soluble pool

The fraction of organic compounds that can be dissolved in acid.

Acid-insoluble fraction

The fraction of organic compounds that cannot be dissolved in acid.

Biomolecules

Carbon compounds found in living tissues.

Elemental analysis

The analysis of the elemental composition of a substance or sample.

Wet weight

The weight of a living tissue sample before it is dried.

Dry weight

The weight of a living tissue sample after all the water has evaporated.

Ash

The remaining material after a living tissue sample has been fully burnt.

Inorganic elements

Elements that are not carbon-based and are found in living organisms.

Inorganic compounds

Compounds that are not carbon-based and are found in living organisms.1. Amino acids:Organic compounds that are the building blocks of proteins.

R group

The variable group in an amino acid that determines its specific properties.

Glycine

An amino acid with a hydrogen R group.

Alanine

An amino acid with a methyl R group.

Serine

An amino acid with a hydroxy methyl R group.

Acidic amino acids

Amino acids with both amino and carboxyl groups, giving them an acidic property.

Basic amino acids

Amino acids with both amino and carboxyl groups, giving them a basic property.

Neutral amino acids

Amino acids with both amino and carboxyl groups, neither acidic nor basic.

Aromatic amino acids

Amino acids with a ring structure, such as tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan.

Zwitterionic form

The ionizable form of an amino acid in solution, with both positive and negative charges.

Lipids

Organic compounds that are generally water insoluble, including fatty acids and glycerol.

Fatty acids

Organic compounds with a carboxyl group attached to an R group, can be saturated or unsaturated.

Glycerol

A trihydroxy propane compound found in lipids.

Triglycerides

Lipids composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.

Phospholipids

Lipids with phosphorous and a phosphorylated organic compound, found in cell membranes.

Nucleotides

Organic compounds composed of a sugar, nitrogen base, and phosphate group, found in nucleic acids.

Nucleosides

Organic compounds composed of a sugar and nitrogen base, without the phosphate group.

DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid that carries genetic information.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid involved in protein synthesis.

Primary metabolites

Compounds found in animal tissues, including amino acids and sugars.

Secondary metabolites

Compounds found in plant, fungal, and microbial cells, including alkaloids, flavonoids, and essential oils.

Biomacromolecules

Macromolecules found in the acid insoluble fraction of living organisms, including proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, and lipids.1. Biomolecules:The molecules that make up living organisms, including water, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and ions.

Water

The most abundant component of cells, making up 70-90% of the total cellular mass.

Proteins

Polypeptides made up of linear chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They have various functions in living organisms, such as transporting nutrients, fighting infectious agents, acting as hormones, and serving as enzymes.

Carbohydrates

Polysaccharides that are long chains of sugars. They serve as a source of energy and include molecules like cellulose, starch, and glycogen.

Lipids

Organic compounds that are not strictly macromolecules. They are present in cell membranes and other membranes, and can form vesicles that are not water soluble.

Nucleic acids

Macromolecules that include DNA and RNA, which are responsible for storing and transmitting genetic information.

Ions

Charged particles that are present in cells and play important roles in various cellular processes.

Cell membrane

The structure that surrounds and protects the cell, composed of lipids and proteins.

Vesicles

Small membrane-bound sacs that can form from the fragmentation of cell membranes and other membranes.

Acid insoluble pool

The fraction of macromolecules that are not soluble in acid, including membrane fragments and vesicles.

Acid soluble pool

The fraction of macromolecules that are soluble in acid, representing the cytoplasmic composition of cells.

Cytoplasm

The fluid inside cells, where various cellular processes take place.

Organelles

Specialized structures within cells that perform specific functions.

Polymer

A large molecule made up of repeating subunits called monomers.

Amino acids

The building blocks of proteins, of which there are 20 different types.

Peptide bonds

The chemical bonds that link amino acids together to form proteins.

Heteropolymer

A polymer that consists of different types of monomers.

Homopolymer

A polymer that consists of only one type of monomer repeating multiple times.

Essential amino acids

Amino acids that our body cannot produce and must be obtained through our diet.

Non-essential amino acids

Amino acids that our body can produce on its own.

Collagen

The most abundant protein in the animal world, which provides structural support to tissues.

Enzyme

A protein that catalyzes chemical reactions in living organisms.

Hormone

A protein that acts as a chemical messenger in the body, regulating various physiological processes.

Antibody

A protein that fights against infectious agents, such as bacteria and viruses.

Receptor

A protein that detects and responds to specific molecules, such as hormones or neurotransmitters.

Glucose transporter 4 (GLUT-4)

A protein that enables the transport of glucose into cells.

Polysaccharides

Long chains of sugars that serve as another class of macromolecules, including cellulose, starch, and glycogen.

Cellulose

A polysaccharide made up of glucose monomers, providing structural support to plant cell walls.

Starch

A polysaccharide that serves as a storage form of energy in plant tissues.

Glycogen

A polysaccharide that serves as a storage form of energy in animals.

Inulin

A polysaccharide made up of fructose monomers.

Reducing end

The right end of a polysaccharide chain, which can undergo chemical reactions.

Non-reducing end

The left end of a polysaccharide chain, which does not undergo chemical reactions.

Helical structure

A spiral-shaped secondary structure, such as the helical portion of starch.

I2

Iodine molecules, which can be held by starch in its helical portion, resulting in a blue color.1. Cellulose:A complex polysaccharide found in plant cell walls and used to make paper and cotton fiber.

Chitin

A complex polysaccharide found in the exoskeletons of arthropods.

Nucleic acids

Macromolecules found in the acid insoluble fraction of living tissues, composed of polynucleotides.

Nucleotide

The building block of nucleic acids, consisting of a heterocyclic compound, a monosaccharide, and a phosphoric acid or phosphate.

Adenine

A nitrogenous base found in nucleic acids, specifically a substituted purine.

Guanine

A nitrogenous base found in nucleic acids, specifically a substituted purine.

Uracil

A nitrogenous base found in RNA, specifically a substituted pyrimidine.

Cytosine

A nitrogenous base found in nucleic acids, specifically a substituted pyrimidine.

Thymine

A nitrogenous base found in DNA, specifically a substituted pyrimidine.

Primary structure

The sequence of amino acids in a protein.

Secondary structure

The folding of a protein into helices or other forms.

Tertiary structure

The overall 3-dimensional shape of a protein.

Quaternary structure

The arrangement of multiple polypeptides or subunits in a protein.

Enzymes

Proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions.

Ribozymes

Nucleic acids that behave like enzymes.1. Biomolecules:Molecules that are essential for life, including proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Active site

A crevice or pocket on an enzyme where the substrate binds and the catalytic reaction takes place.

Enzyme

A protein with a three-dimensional structure that acts as a catalyst, speeding up chemical reactions in living organisms.

Inorganic catalysts

Catalysts that work efficiently at high temperatures and pressures.

Organic catalysts

Catalysts, such as enzymes, that are derived from living organisms and have specific temperature and pH requirements.

Thermal stability

The ability of an enzyme to retain its catalytic power at high temperatures.

Chemical reaction

A process in which bonds are broken and new bonds are formed, resulting in the transformation of one or more substances into different substances.

Rate of reaction

The amount of product formed per unit time.

Catalysed reaction

A reaction that is accelerated by the presence of an enzyme, resulting in a much higher reaction rate compared to an uncatalysed reaction.

Metabolic pathway

A series of enzyme-catalysed reactions that convert a starting molecule (substrate) into a final product.

Substrate

The molecule that binds to the active site of an enzyme and undergoes a chemical or metabolic conversion.

Product

The molecule that is formed as a result of a chemical or metabolic conversion catalysed by an enzyme.1. Transition state:An intermediate structural state between the stable substrate and the product in a chemical reaction.

Activation energy

The difference in average energy content between the substrate and the transition state in a chemical reaction.

Enzyme

A protein that acts as a catalyst in biological reactions.

Substrate

The molecule that binds to the active site of an enzyme and undergoes a chemical reaction.

Enzyme-substrate complex

A short-lived complex formed when the substrate binds to the active site of an enzyme.

Enzyme-product complex

An intermediate complex formed during the catalytic cycle of an enzyme, before the products are released.

Catalytic cycle

The series of steps involved in the enzymatic reaction, including substrate binding, shape alteration, bond breaking, product formation, and enzyme regeneration.

Optimum temperature

The temperature at which an enzyme shows its highest activity.

Optimum pH

The pH at which an enzyme shows its highest activity.

Denaturation

The process in which proteins lose their structure and function due to high temperature or extreme pH.

Vmax

The maximum velocity of an enzymatic reaction, reached when all enzyme molecules are saturated with substrate.