Studied by 7 people
Structuralism
An approach focusing on large-scale social structures in which people play defined roles (macro)
Macro/micro approaches
Macro approaches focus on the large scale of whole societies; Micro approaches on small-scale social interaction
Structuralism perspective on society
In structuralism, social roles and actions of people in fulfilling these roles are what is important, not the individuals (macro approach). These theories are used to find social structures that may be hidden from individuals.
Example of research where the structuralist perspective was used:
Emile Durkheim's work on suicide's link to society's organization. He noted that the suicide rate (proportion of the population who committed suicide) yearly didn't vary in a country but there were differences in suicide rates between countries. He tried to show that social forces (or social causes of action) drove individual actions (like suicide). E.g. of Social Force: Link between individual and family/religion. Stronger ties = lower suicide rates which is why suicide rates show something about the nature of the society and not the individuals. Durkheim worked within the positivist framework and looked for causation (strict link between two variables - cause and effect) and correlation (link between variables, but causation can't be proved).
Positivism
An approach to sociology (research methods) based on studying society in a scientific manner (favour experiments, social surveys and questionnaires to attain quantitative data). This is based on the belief that sociology is a science, so sociologists should use the scientific method. Positivism is associated with structuralism.
Structuralists believe that individuals:
have little freedom of thought and society (and social forces) controls all individuals like puppets.
Interpretivism
Approaches that start at the level of the individual, focusing on small-scale phenomena and usually favouring qualitative methods. (micro)
Interpretivists belief on society vs individuals
Individuals are in control as they make and change the societies they live in through their actions - we don't HAVE to accept the norms and values of the society we are born in and values of societies change continuously as people's ideas change) - and study individual views on society, social actions, and their identities (how they view themselves).
Humans are
active, conscious beings and make choices
Society provides everyone with (e.g. African-American)
labels, but individuals can choose what labels they consider part of their identity and reject the others
Socially available labels include:
Sex and gender identities
Ethnic identity
Age
Social class
Nationality
Occupation Roles within a family i.e. parent or child, etc.
Membership of a religious or political organisation
Interpretivists use (methods)
participant observation and unstructured interviews - as they are more helpful in uncovering the "why" behind social actions
Perspectives
Ways of viewing social life from different points of view
Consensus
Basic agreement on a shared set of values
Conflict
Disagreement between groups with different interests.
When does consensus occur?
When most or all factors affecting society - wealth, status, and power, are all accepted by society. Shared rituals bring the society together so they identify strongly with it, there is also often a national identity; nationalism
Example of a consensus theory
Functionalism
Social conflict takes place when
certain factors affecting society are not accepted by all groups and they are in disagreement in that society.
A society based on conflict is
unstable.
Conflict theories emphasise
discrimination and inequalities between certain groups in society.
Example - Conflict
Marxism, Feminism
Functionalism - beliefs
Functionalists believe that every aspect of society works to serve a particular function
They believe that the function of schools
are to give children the needed skills for work which in return aids the society's economy.
They believe that the function of families
to converse and familiarise children into the norms and values of society so it continues to the future generations.
They believe that the function of prisons
are to withdraw people who do not abide lawfully and disrupt the smooth functioning of society.
They discern society as being like
the human body - "organic analogy" which compares society to a living organism. In the same way the different parts of the body all perform different functions to keep one healthy, each aspect of society is seen as having functions that help the society to survive. Therefore for society to work effectively all individuals within it must function and behave properly
Any society has functional
prerequisites (basic needs which must be satisfied for the society to survive, like food, childcare, and primary socialisation.)
The main sociologist associated with it is
Talcott Parsons
Marxists believe that
modern industrial societies are conditional to a primary conflict. between the different social classes (upper/elite class, middle class, lower/working class)
Bourgeoise
the owners of wealth and property (elite, upper class)
Proletariats
the working class
Karl Marx believed that the ideas about the ruling class (the upper class) became the
dominant ideology which was clearly reflected in society.
Marxism is named after
Karl Marx, who brought rise to the perspective.
Feminists see a
clear division between men and women in society.
They argue that it is men
who control and dominate society and possess more wealth and power in all aspects than women.
This domination of men in society is referred to as
patriarchy.
There are three types of feminism, They include:
Liberal feminists: they believe gender equality can be attained by changing certain laws or creating new ones. (does not focus on conflict)
Radical feminists: they believe that society remains principally patriarchal and men still have power, they believe radical change is necessary.
Marxist feminists: bring together Marxist and feminist perspectives to show how class and gender correlate to create partitions in society.
Positivism
An approach to research methods associated with structuralism
It is based on the belief that sociology is a
science, so should use the same methods as natural sciences
Sociologists associated with it (positivism) include
Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim
They witnessed the growing ability of natural sciences to predict nature
and believed social behaviour could be discovered similarly.
They emphasise
objectivity
They want to be
neutral and discover the truth. This makes their results unbiased.
However, critics claim this is impossible as
scientists are already influenced by their values from the beginning.
Interpretivist methods
Qualitative e.g. Unstructured interviews, participant observations and personal documents. Validity, richer, personal and subjective understanding.
Interpretivists look at
why people behave the way they do
Steps of a Research (All)
Research Aims and Selection of Topic - Identification of a problem that will be studied.
Reviewing Existing Evidence - Conducting a literature review (finding out what is already known about the chosen topic) as drawing on the ideas of other sociologists helps to clarify the issues and in making decisions on how to proceed.
Hypothesis Setting - Theory or explanation at the start of a research that the research is designed to test.
Choosing a Method - Researcher needs to evaluate the type of data he/she wants to collect and which type will give evidence which can prove/disprove the hypothesis.
Pilot Study - Small scale test of a piece of the research project to test for problems and ways to improve research methodology. (Doing so saves money and time in the future during larger-scale researches).
Sampling - Taking selected members of the survey population (all those to whom the findings of the study will apply). Usually taken so that the research is representative (researcher can claim findings apply to all members of the population). To be generalizable, the sample has to be a cross-section of the population.
Research is carried out and Data is collected to be analysed
Hypothesis is proven true or false and findings are usually published.
/
Factors influencing Research Aims and Selection of Topic
personal interests
what is already known and not known about the topic
social changes and developments
whether funding is available
how practical it will be to do the research
ethical issues
Hypothesis
A theory or explanation at the start of research that the research is designed to test
Difference in hypothesis - Positivist and Interpretivist
Positivist: Distinct hypothesis
Interpretivist: Looser and broader aim
Pilot study
A small-scale test of a piece of a research project before the main research
What does the pilot study help with?
Identifying errors in the design or if the research plan can be improved. This saves money, time and effort later.
Sampling frame
A list of members of the (survey) population from which the sample is chosen
Commonly used sampling frames
Electoral rolls: List of everyone who is registered to vote along with their address. Problem: wouldn't contain anyone below the age of 18 (however is ideal for researches concerning only adults).
Telephone directories: Give addresses as well as telephone numbers and are usually easily available. Problem: list only one member of the household, do not provide information about other members at the same address, do not list people without telephones or those who have chosen not to be included.
School registers: Lists of children in school with information about their gender, age, etc. Problem: available only to genuine researchers, require permission from those in authority (such as headteacher).
Why is sampling sometimes not required?
Many countries have a census (social survey carried out by the government) to get information about EVERY single person in the country. Censuses collect information about the whole population, not a sample and therefore, have generalizable findings in regard to that country.
Types of sampling methods
Random Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Quota sampling
Systematic Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Opportunity Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Random Sampling
This is when everyone in the sampling frame has an equal chance of being chosen. It should be an unbiased representation of the population.
Strengths - Random Sampling
Each member has an equal chance of being chosen, making it an unbiased and fair sample.
Time-consuming: The researcher doesn't have to go through the process of stratifying the sample
Prevents researcher bias since they cannot pick people who will support the research hypothesis
It is often the sampling type used to select a large sample, so findings are more generalisable.
Weaknesses - Random Sampling
They are not always representative so the researcher may get a sample dominated by one sex, ethnicity, class, etc • a sampling frame is needed and this may not be available for some groups e.g. deviant groups; • because a sampling frame is required researchers may have to pay to access or apply for access - both practical disadvantages; • because people are asked randomly they may choose not to take part in the research, as opposed to being recruited through snowballing or because they wish to take part as a volunteer sampling;
Stratified Sampling
The sample frame is divided into subgroups and the sample should be representative of these subgroups. (e.g. gender, age)
Strengths - Stratified Sampling
• stratified sampling overcomes the problem that random samples are not always representative in that the researcher is able to divide the sampling frame into relevant categories such as age, gender etc.; • stratified sampling may allow for more generalisability of findings given the sample is likely to represent the target population in terms of its subdivisions; • a stratified approach allows correlations and comparisons to be made between sub-sets of the population; • it is still possible to maintain a randomised approach as random samples can be taken once the sampling frame is divided, thus reducing researcher bias in the sample selection;
Weaknesses - Stratified Sampling
a sampling frame may not be available for certain research populations who are hard to reach (e.g. drug users) so another form of sampling, such as snowball, may be needed;
it can be hard to stratify as accurate up-to-date population data may not be available and it may be hard to identify people's age or social background effectively;
it can be complex to do if several social characteristics are needed e.g. age, gender, ethnicity, social class etc. and therefore requires some skill;
it is more complex to do than simple random sampling and hence takes up more researcher time and money; stratified samples are prone to become skewed in cases of participant drop out e.g. if many women dropped out of a study stratified by gender this would make the sample uneven;
Quota sampling
Deciding in advance how many people with what characteristics to involve in the research and then identifying them
Quota sampling - strengths
it is quicker to perform than some other sampling types as groups with specific characteristics can be accessed more efficiently;
it may be easier to carry out quota sampling as no sampling frame is required;
it is a type of stratified sampling
finding a certain number or quota of people with specific characteristics may be more representative of the research population than random sampling;
it gives a better representation of certain groups within the target population, without overrepresenting them;
using a quota sample is a stratified approach and therefore makes the comparison of social groups easy;
Quota sampling - weaknesses
Imprecise with improper clusters
It is prone to bias as if the clusters representing the entire population were formed under a biased opinion
Systematic samples
This is when the regular pattern to the choice - for example, every tenth name in the sampling frame is chosen
Strengths - Systematic samples
Easy once the sampling frame is gained (not time-consuming)
No bias selection
Weaknesses - Systematic samples
Patterns can be predicted which can cause bias among the participants
No equal chance of being selected
Participants may not want to take part so the system is broken down
Cluster Samples
These are used when the population is spread out over a whole area, such as a country and certain areas are chosen for the sampling frame. -- Random samples are taken in those areas to avoid the expenses with travelling.
Strengths - Cluster
Time cost and efficient,cheaper and quicker than other sampling methods. For example, it reduces travel expenses for wide geographical populations.
High external validity,If your population is clustered properly to represent every possible characteristic of the entire population, your clusters will accurately reflect the entire population.
Weaknesses - cluster
Participants may choose not to take part in the investigation, and they are ethically allowed to.
Planning study designs for cluster sampling usually requires more attention because researchers need to determine how to divide up a larger population efficiently and properly.
Opportunity Sampling
Taking the sample from people who are available at the time the study is carried out and who fit the criteria you are looking for
Opportunity Sampling - Strengths
This method is easy and inexpensive to carry out.
Opportunity Sampling - Weaknesses
opportunity samples simply choose from who is available at the time, hence are often unrepresentative;
the researcher may pick people they see as befitting, leading to a biased sample
Snowball Sampling
When one respondent puts the researcher in contact with the others.
Strengths - Snowball sampling
Useful for researching hard to contact groups like gangsters
Weaknesses - Snowball sampling
may be unrepresentative because they share the same characteristics
need to have a trustworthy contact
difficult to plan as you do not know where your subjects are when you start
samples are small so lack generalisability
The main methods
Questionnaires/social surveys
Questionnaires: A standardised list of questions used in social surveys
Social surveys: The systematic collection of information from a sample, usually involving a questionnaire or structured interviews
Types of questions
Closed or pre-coded questions
Scaled questions
Open ended questions
closed or pre-coded questions
The researcher provides a set of responses from which the respondent chooses, so responses are limited and each answer is coded by a value
Advantage closed
Easy to analyse to produce statistical tables (quantitative data)
Disadvantage closed
Some participants may want to give a response that is not available
Solution closed
Provide a 'Other (Please specify)' option.
Scaled questions
A type of close-ended question. A common set of responses is: strongly agree/ agree/ neutral/ disagree/ strongly disagree. There is a debate about odd vs. even no. of options as most will choose the middle one. Even numbers can produce data that prove something, but could also make them choose when they have no opinion.
Open questions
Most surveys looks for quantitative data, but open-ended questions help probe more deeply into why people do or behave in certain ways, .
Advantage - Open questions
Produces more qualitative data
Disadvantage - Open questions
Difficult to analyse
Ways of administrating surveys
Self-completion questionnaires, Postal Questionnaires, Structured Interviews
Self-completion questionnaires
Respondents answer the question without guidance from the researcher.
Postal Questionnaires
The most common type of questionnaires.
Strength Postal
Can reach a large number of people so can be generalised and representative.
Weakness Postal
The response rate is often very low and this reduces the representativeness as only certain people will respond. Some questions may also be neglected, misunderstood or answered inappropriately since the researcher is absent.
Structured Interviews
The researcher reads the questions out loud and records the respondents answers. This can be done via telephone or face-to-face.
Face-to-face
Location is crucial; time and place should be decided and respondent should be made comfortable. The question should be standardised.
Strengths - Face-to-face
Higher response rate than postal questionnaires since the researcher clarifies their intent and any concerns about the research. They may also be able to give prompts
Weaknesses- Face-to-face
They take up more of the researcher's time and therefore are more expensive.
Solution to the disadvantages of interviews
Employ assistants to carry out interviews but provide comprehensive instructions.
Strengths (self-completion)
Cheaper than structured interviews
Large number of questionnaires can be posted (Generalisable)
Researcher is not present so cannot influence the answers (Hawthorne Effect)
Convenient - Participants can complete when they choose.
Weakness (self-completion)
Low response rate
Questions may be misunderstood and no one can explain it.
Researcher cannot be sure who answered the questions
Some questions may be unanswered
Note 
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