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Deficit

The result of when the government in one year spends more money than it takes in from taxes.

National Debt

The total deficit from the first presidency down to the present.

Gross Domestic Product

The total of all goods and services produced in the economy during a given year.

Monetarism

The belief that inflation occurs when too much money is chasing too few goods.

Keynesianism

The belief the government must manage the economy by spending more money when in a recession and cutting spending when there is inflation.

Economic Planning

The belief that government plans, such as wage and price controls or the direction of investment, can improve the economy.

Supply-Side Theory

The belief that lower taxes and fewer regulations will stimulate the economy.

Monetary Policy

Managing the economy by altering the supply of money and interest rates.

Fiscal Policy

Managing the economy by the use of tax and spending laws.

Globalization

The growing integration of the economies and societies of the world.

Budget

A document that states tax collections, spending levels, and the allocation of spending among purposes.

Fiscal Year

For the federal government, October 1 through the following September 30.

Budget Resolution

A congressional decision that states the maximum amount of money the government should spend.

Entitlements

A claim for government funds that cannot be changed without violating the rights of the claimant.

Sequester

Automatic spending cuts.

Discretionary Spending

Spending that is not required to pay for contracts, interest on the national debt, or entitlement programs such as Social Security.

Political Agenda

Issues that people believe require governmental action.

Cost

A burden that people believe they must bear if a policy is enacted.

Benefit

A satisfaction that people believe they will enjoy if a policy is adopted

Majoritarian Politics

A policy in which almost everybody benefits and almost everybody pays.

Interest Group Politics

A policy in which one small group benefits and another small group pays.

Client Politics

A policy in which one small group benefits and almost everyone pays.

Pork-Barrel Legislation

Legislation that gives tangible benefits to constituents in several districts or states in the hope of winning their votes in return.

Logrolling

A legislator supports a proposal favored by another in return for support of his or hers.

Entrepreneurial Politics

A policy in which almost everybody benefits and a small group pays the cost.

Policy Entrepreneurs

Activists in or out of government who pull together a political majority on behalf of unorganized interests.

Process Regulation

Rules governing commercial activities designed to improve consumer, worker, or environmental conditions. Also called social regulation.

Judicial Review

The power of the courts to declare laws unconstitutional.

Judicial Restraint Approach

The view that judges should decide cases strictly on the basis of the language of the laws and the Constitution.

Activist Approach

The view that judges should discern the general principles underlying laws or the Constitution and apply them to modern circumstances.

Constitutional Court

A federal court authorized by Article III of the Constitution that keeps judges in office during good behavior and prevents their salaries from being reduced. They are the Supreme Court (created by the Constitution) and appellate and district courts created by Congress.

District Courts

The lowest federal courts; federal trials can be held only here.

Courts of Appeals

Federal courts that hear appeals from district courts; no trials.

Legislative Courts

Courts created by Congress for specialized purposes whose judges do not enjoy the protections of Article III of the Constitution.

Litmus Test

An examination of the political ideology of a nominated judge.

Federal-Question Cases

Cases concerning the Constitution, federal laws, or treaties.

Diversity Cases

Cases involving citizens of different states who can bring suit in federal courts.

Writ of Certiorari

An order by a higher court directing a lower court to send up a case for review.

In Forma Pauperis

A method whereby a poor person can have his or her case heard in federal court without charge.

Fee Shifting

A rule that allows a plaintiff to recover costs from the defendant if the plaintiff wins.

Plaintiff

The party that initiates a lawsuit.

Standing

A legal rule stating who is authorized to start a lawsuit.

Sovereign Immunity

The rule that a citizen cannot sue the government without the government's consent.

Class-Action Suit

A case brought by someone to help him or her and all others who are similarly situated.

Brief

A written statement by an attorney that summarizes a case and the laws and rulings that support it.

Amicus Curiae

A brief submitted by a "friend of the court"

Per Curiam Opinion

A brief, unsigned court opinion.

Opinion of the Court

A signed opinion of a majority of the Supreme Court.

Concurring Opinion

A signed opinion in which one or more members agree with the majority view but for different reasons.

Dissenting Opinion

A signed opinion in which one or more justices disagree with the majority view.

Stare Decisis

"Let the decision stand," or allowing prior rulings to control the current case.

Political Question

An issue the Supreme Court will allow the executive and legislative branches decide.

Remedy

A judicial order enforcing a right or redressing a wrong.

Bureaucracy

A large, complex organization composed of appointed officials.

Government by Proxy

Washington pays state and local governments and private groups to staff and administer federal programs.

Laissez-Faire

An economic theory that government should not regulate or interfere with commerce.

Discretionary Authority

The extent to which appointed bureaucrats can choose courses of action and make policies that are not spelled out in advance by laws.

Competitive Service

The government offices to which people are appointed on the basis of merit, as ascertained by a written exam or by applying certain selection criteria.

Name-Request Job

A Job that is filled by a person whom an agency has already identified.

Iron Triangle

A close relationship between an agency, a congressional committee, and an interest group.

Issue Network

A network of people in Washington D.C based interest groups, on congressional staffs, in universities and think tanks, and in the mass media, who regularly discuss and advocate public policies.

Authorization Legislation

Legislative permission to begin or continue a government program or agency.

Appropriation

A legislative grant of money to finance a government program or agency.

Trust Funds

Funds for government programs that are collected and spent outside the regular government budget.

Committee Clearance

The ability of a congressional committee to review and approve certain agency decisions in advance and without passing a law.

Legislative Veto

The authority of Congress to block a presidential action after it has taken place. The Supreme Court has held that Congress does not have this power.

Red Tape

Complex bureaucratic rules and procedures that must be followed to get something done.

Conflict

Bureaucratic pathology when agencies seem to be working at cross-purposes with other agencies.

Duplication

Bureaucratic pathology when agencies seem to doing the same thing.

Imperialism

Bureaucratic pathology, the tendency of agencies to grow without regard to the benefits that their programs confer or costs that they entail.

Waste

Bureaucratic pathology that means spending more than is necessary to buy some product or service.

Divided Government

One party controls the White House and another party controls one or both houses of Congress.

Unified Government

The same party controls the White House and both houses of congress.

Gridlock

The inability of the government to act because rival parties control different parts of the government.

Electoral College

The people chosen to cast each state's votes in a presidential election. Each state can cast one electoral vote for each senator and representative it has. The District of Columbia has three electoral votes, even though it cannot elect a representative or Senator.

Pyramid Structure

A president's subordinates report to him through a clear chain of command headed by a chief of staff.

Circular Structure

Several of the president's assistants report directly to him.

Ad Hoc Structure

Several subordinates, cabinet officers, and committees report directly to the president on different matters.

Cabinet

The heads of the fifteen executive branch departments of the federal government.

Bully Pulpit

The president's use of his prestige and visibility to guide or enthuse the American public.

Veto Message

A message from the president to Congress stating that he will not sign a bill it has passed. Must be produced within ten days of the bill's passage.

Pocket Veto

A bill fails to become law because the president did not sign it within ten days before Congress adjourns.

Line-Item Veto

An executive's ability to block a particular provision in a bill passed by the legislature.

Signing Statement

A presidential document that reveals what the president thinks of a new law and how it ought to be enforced.

Legislative Veto

The authority of Congress to block a presidential action after it has taken place. The Supreme Court has held that Congress does not have this power.

Impeachment

Charges against a president approved by a majority of the House of Representatives.

Lame Duck

A person still in office after he or she has lost a bid for reelection.

Bicameral Legislature

A lawmaking body made up of two chambers or parts.

Filibuster

An attempt to defeat a bill in the Senate by talking indefinitely thus preventing the Senate from taking action one the bill.

Marginal Districts

Political districts in which candidates elected to the House of Representatives win in close elections, typically by less than 55 percent of the vote.

Safe Districts

Districts in which incumbents win by margins of 55 percent or more.

Conservative Coalition

An alliance between Republicans and conservative Democrats.

Majority Leader

The legislative leader elected by party members holding the majority of seats in the House or the Senate.

Minority Leader

The legislative leader elected by party members holding the minority of seats in the House or the Senate.

Whip

A senator or representative who helps the party leader stay informed about what party members are thinking.

Party Polarization

A vote in which a majority of Democratic legislators oppose a majority of Republican legislators.

Caucus

An association of congress members created to advance a political ideology or a regional, ethnic, or economic interest.

Standing Committee

Permanently established legislative committees that consider and are responsible for legislation within a certain subject area.

Select Committees

Congressional committees appointed for a limited time and purpose.

Joint Committees

Committees on which both senators and representatives serve.