The USA as a Superpower

What did Churchill believe the Soviet Union admired most?

Strength, especially military strength.

What did Churchill believe about weakness, particularly military weakness?

The Soviets had little respect for weakness and might be tempted to test it.

According to Churchill, what would happen if the Western Democracies became divided?

Catastrophe could overwhelm them all.

What metaphor did Churchill use to describe Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe?

The 'Iron Curtain'.

What position did Churchill hold during WWII?

British Prime Minister.

How was Churchill viewed in the USA after 1945?

He was hugely admired, even after losing the General Election.

How was Churchill's relationship with Stalin characterised?

Tense and distrustful.

What was Churchill's stance on empire?

Profoundly pro-empire.

What was Truman's background before becoming President?

A plain-speaking Southerner, known for being hard-working and just.

When did Truman become vice president, and how soon did he become president?

Appointed 20 January 1945; became president 82 days later.

What domestic goal did Truman aim to continue?

The success of Roosevelt's New Deal.

What was Truman's stance on communism?

Staunchly anti-communist.

Why was Truman less willing to compromise with Stalin than Roosevelt?

He had no experience in international relations and relied heavily on advisors like Acheson and Churchill.

What did Truman's foreign policy quickly evolve into?

Containing Soviet expansion and protecting US allies and trade.

What was Stalin's real name and what does 'Stalin' mean?

Ioseb Jughashvili; 'Stalin' means 'Man of Steel'.

When did Stalin take control of the USSR?

After Lenin's death, consolidating power in the 1920s.

What were Stalin's leadership traits?

Brutal, propagandist, fearsome negotiator, and dictator.

How did Stalin contribute to the war effort after 1941?

He led the USSR in resisting the Nazi invasion and advanced to Berlin.

Who was Dean Acheson?

A Yale-educated lawyer, Democrat, and key foreign policy advisor.

What were Acheson's major beliefs?

Supporter of the Truman Doctrine and the domino theory.

What important policy paper was Acheson involved in?

NSC-68.

When did Acheson become Secretary of State?

1949

What is NSC-68?

NSC-68 (National Security Council Report 68) was a top secret US security policy document ordered by President Truman and issued in April 1950 after the Soviet Union tested a nuclear bomb in August 1949.

What did NSC-68 recommend regarding US defence spending?

Increasing defence spending to $50 billion per year from the original $13 billion set for 1950.

What policy was NSC-68 designed to carry out?

Kennan's policy of containment to prevent the spread of communism.

What did NSC-68 warn was at stake if the US failed to prevent the spread of communism?

The destruction of civilisation.

What does USSR stand for?

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

Which countries made up the USSR?

Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Kazakhstan, and others.

Which city dominated the USSR?

Moscow.

Why will this book use USSR or Soviet Union rather than Russia?

Because the USSR was made up of multiple republics, not just Russia.

When and where was the Yalta Conference held?

4-11 February 1945 at Yalta, a Russian resort town.

What agreements were made at the Yalta Conference?

Germany to be split into four zones controlled by the US, USSR, France, and Britain. Free elections in liberated Eastern European countries. USSR to join the war against Japan after Germany's defeat. Stalin invited to join the United Nations.

Why was Stalin's distrust of the West significant at Yalta?

He distrusted the West and Churchill in particular, so Roosevelt took responsibility for handling relations with Stalin.

How did Roosevelt describe the outcome of Yalta?

As a start on the road to a world of peace.

When and where was the Potsdam Conference held?

17 July to 2 August 1945 at Potsdam.

What was Truman's aim at the Potsdam Conference?

To stand up to Stalin and establish his reputation on the world stage.

What was the outcome of the Potsdam Conference?

Little agreement due to tension, discussion of Poland's frontiers, German disarmament, reparations, and Nazi trials.

What was Truman's key failure at Potsdam?

Not informing Stalin about the US atomic bomb before the end of the conference.

Why was the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima shortly after Potsdam?

To avoid needing Soviet aid against Japan and exclude them from future negotiations about Japan's future.

What was the significance of the atomic bomb?

It marked the beginning of the nuclear age.

What was the aim of the United Nations?

To maintain international security and peace.

When was the United Nations officially established?

24 October 1945.

Which countries ratified the UN Charter making the UN official?

China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, the USA, and a majority of other signatories.

Who made up the permanent Security Council members?

China, France, the Soviet Union, the UK, and the USA.

What were the key decisions made at Yalta in February 1945?

Divide Germany into four zones; put Nazi war criminals on trial; set up a Polish Provisional Government and hold free elections; help establish democratic, self-governing European countries; set up a reparations commission; Stalin promised USSR would join the war in the Pacific in exchange for zones in North Korea and Manchuria and join the UN.

What were the main agreements at the Potsdam Conference (July-August 1945)?

Confirm four occupation zones in Germany; eliminate Nazi Party, government, laws; de-Nazify German education and institutions; plan Nazi war criminals trials; hold free elections in Poland; USSR allowed reparations from its zone and 10% of industrial equipment from western zones; US and Britain allowed reparations from their zones.

How did the atmosphere differ between Yalta and Potsdam conferences?

Yalta was more cooperative; Potsdam had grown tensions and major disagreements, especially over Soviet policy in Eastern Europe and reparations.

What was Truman aware of at Potsdam that influenced his decisions?

That the atomic bomb had been tested successfully and was ready for use.

How much did the atomic bomb cost to develop?

$2 billion.

Why was the bomb developed?

Due to fears that Nazi scientists would develop the technology first.

What were the positive reasons for using the atomic bomb?

Ending the war without a bloody land invasion, warning the Soviet Union about US power, and justifying the bomb's cost.

What were the negative reasons against using the atomic bomb?

Enormous civilian casualties, unknown long-term environmental consequences, and intelligence suggesting Japan was near surrender.

Why did Truman's presidency begin with rapid alienation of Stalin?

Because of mistrust due to Western actions like opposing communists in the Russian Civil War and secret atomic bomb development.

What was Churchill's view on communism during the Russian Civil War?

He said communism should be "strangled in its cradle."

Why did Stalin feel betrayed by the Allies during WWII regarding the invasion of France?

Because Roosevelt and Churchill resisted opening a Western front until 1944, which Stalin believed allowed Nazis to kill communists.

What was the 'Eastern Bloc'?

A group of pro-USSR states established after WWII in Eastern Europe.

Who was George Kennan?

A US diplomat and historian with experience in Eastern Europe and the USSR during the 1920s and 30s.

What did George Kennan's 1946 analysis advocate?

A policy of containment to stand up to communism worldwide.

How long was the containment policy influential?

Until the disastrous outcome of the Vietnam War.

Who was Dean Acheson?

One of Truman's profoundly anti-communist advisers.

What was the significance of Kennan's 'Long Telegram' in 1945?

It advised the US Secretary of State on handling communist foreign policy, emphasising Soviet caution and sensitivity to force.

According to Kennan's telegram, what characteristic defined Soviet power?

It was neither schematic nor adventurous, avoided unnecessary risks, and was sensitive to the logic of force.

What did Kennan suggest was key to limiting Soviet success?

The cohesion, firmness, and vigour of the Western world.

What was Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech about?

He claimed an "Iron Curtain" had descended across Europe, signalling Soviet expansion and power.

What did Churchill say Soviet Russia desired?

Not war, but the fruits of war and the indefinite expansion of their power and doctrines.

How did Truman interpret the messages from Churchill and Kennan?

He understood the threat of Soviet control over Eastern Europe and took the warnings seriously.

What actions by the Soviets triggered Truman to develop a new policy?

Soviet troops stayed in Iran against promises, and Greek communists destabilised the monarchy.

When did Truman announce his request for aid to Congress?

On 12 March 1947.

What did Truman request from Congress on 12 March 1947?

$400 million in military and economic assistance for Greece and Turkey.

What was the main purpose of Truman's policy statement?

To support free peoples resisting subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures, implicitly communists.

How was the Truman Doctrine viewed internationally?

As a commitment by the US to oppose the spread of communism.

Did the Truman Doctrine specify that the armed minority had to be communist?

No, it did not specify the minority had to be communist.

Who was George Marshall and what did he convince Truman to do?

US Secretary of State who persuaded Truman to offer financial aid to rebuild European economies.

Why was Congress initially reluctant to approve the Marshall Plan?

Due to concerns about cost and political implications.

What event pushed Congress to approve the Marshall Plan?

The Communist Party seizing power in Czechoslovakia in February 1948.

What was the official name of the Marshall Plan?

The European Recovery Program (ERP).

How much money did the Marshall Plan provide and over what period?

$17 billion over four years from April 1948.

Which countries received the bulk of the Marshall Plan aid?

The UK, France, Germany, and Italy.

What economic effects did the Marshall Plan have in Europe?

Industrial production rose 35%, austerity measures were relaxed, and markets for American goods were restored.

What political effect did the Marshall Plan have on US-Soviet relations?

It established the USA as protector of Europe and further alienated Stalin.

Why did Stalin want Germany to remain weak?

Because Germany had invaded Russia twice between 1914 and 1941.

How did the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan influence the Cold War?

They defined US foreign policy and escalated Cold War tensions by opposing Soviet communism.

What was the first military test and example of Cold War brinkmanship?

The Berlin Crisis.

What was the plan of the USA, Britain, and France in early 1948 regarding Germany?

To create a West German government by combining their zones and reforming the currency to create the Deutschmark.

Why did Stalin blockade Berlin in March 1948?

To cut the Allies out of the Eastern bloc and because the presence of wealthy West Berliners in East Berlin eroded his control.

What reason did Stalin give for blockading Berlin?

Citing 'technical difficulties' for shutting down routes into the city.

Why was Stalin able to blockade Berlin without breaking international law?

No post-war agreement guaranteed surface access to Berlin, so there was no legal basis to stop the blockade.

Why did Truman choose not to send troops into East Germany during the Berlin Blockade?

It would have meant US troops invading East Germany, risking war with the USSR.

How did Truman respond to the Berlin Blockade?

He ordered an airlift to supply 2.5 million people in Berlin by air, demonstrating US commitment and power.

How many tons of supplies were flown into Berlin during the airlift?

1.5 million tons.

How many flights were made to supply Berlin during the airlift?

275,000 flights.

How long did the Berlin Airlift last?

324 days.

What does the term 'brinksmanship' mean?

Pushing an opponent to the edge in the hope they will concede first, especially in politics.

When did Stalin lift the Berlin blockade?

On 12 May 1949.

What were the results of the Berlin Airlift for Truman's foreign policy?

It was a moral and propaganda victory, justified NATO's creation, deployment of nuclear-capable bombers in Europe, and entrenched the Truman Doctrine.

How were the citizens of Berlin portrayed during the blockade?

As brave heroes defying the tyrannous Soviet leader through resilience.

What is NATO and when was it signed?

The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, signed in April 1949.

What did NATO's collective defence agreement state?

An attack on one member was considered an attack on all members.

Which countries were original members of NATO?

The US, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, the UK, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland.

What was the strategic significance of NATO's US membership?

It deterred the USSR from attacking Western Europe as it would mean declaring war on the US.