USHS Full Topics list

Mississippian

Major native american culture, built large earthenwork mounds with structures on top, had a maize dominated agricultural system, creation of pottery and shells (wampum) for trading, chiefdoms created from loosely affiliated family groups, chiefs and religious leaders centralized power leading to social imbalances and domination of surrounding cultures. Most advanced pre-Columbian culture formed the foundation of later regional societies.

Cahokia

Largest and most important native american site, large pyramid structures i.e. Monks Mound. Center of Mississippian culture, agrarian society with satellite villages providing food and raw materials. Social stratification formed with elites and priests at the top. Showed examples of Urban Planning

Chunkey

A Mississippian game involving rolling a stone disc while players threw spears to land closest to where it stopped. Game played for recreation, ritual and political symbolism, promoted unity and symbolism and reflected Mississippian social and ceremonial life

John Max Wulfing

Early 20th century collector and archaeologist, Assembled major collection of Mississippian artifacts including engraved shells and chunky stones collections helped define Mississippian culture

Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC)

Network of shared religious symbols, art motifs, and rituals among Mississippian peoples. Symbols such as: the Birdman, serpents, hands with eyes, warrior imagery. With the purpose of expressing cosmology, status, and elite ideology. Demonstrates cultural unity and exchange across Mississippian societies.

Huhugam

Major pre-Columbian civilization in the American Southwest (modern Arizona). Built the largest irrigation system in North America, sustaining urban centers in the desert for over 1,000 years. Practiced maize agriculture, developed complex canal networks, and built multistory adobe structures. Declined due to droughts, floods, and social unrest. Their engineering and agricultural systems later influenced modern irrigation routes around Phoenix.

Little Ice Age

Period of global cooling from c. 1250–1850 CE that reduced temperatures by about 5 °F globally. Brought droughts, floods, and shorter growing seasons that destabilized agricultural societies like Cahokia and Huhugam. Undermined leaders who claimed control over nature, contributing to revolts, decentralization, and the shift toward smaller, more democratic Native communities across North America.

Hernando De Soto

Spanish explorer and conquistador (1539–1542) who became the first European to cross the Mississippi River. Traveled across the Southeast (Florida to Arkansas), encountering Mississippian peoples living near the ruins of once-great cities like Cahokia. His accounts reveal European disbelief that Indigenous Americans had built large, complex urban societies, fueling myths of “lost civilizations.”

Siwani

Legendary Huhugam ruler said to control wind and storms, symbolizing the leader’s connection between environment and power. When Siwani failed to bring rain, famine and rebellion followed, leading to his overthrow. Reflects how Huhugam elites maintained authority through claims of supernatural control over nature and agricultural success.

Mississippian Shatter Zone

Period (1500–1730) of social, political, and demographic collapse among Mississippian societies following European contact. Defined by population loss from disease, internal warfare fueled by the slave trade, and the breakdown of chiefdoms into smaller confederacies. European goods arrived before direct contact, destabilizing trade networks and power structures. Unequal and misunderstood encounters with Europeans accelerated the disintegration of the Mississippian world

Taino

Indigenous people of the Caribbean islands (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico) whose name meant “noble/good.” First encountered by Columbus in 1492, they were subjected to brutal forced labor and tribute systems under Spanish rule. Massive depopulation followed due to violence, enslavement, and disease. Columbus’s rule over them revealed the violent foundations of early European colonization and led to the first large-scale indigenous genocide in the Americas.

Matoaka

Powhatan noblewoman known by her childhood name, Pocahontas (“playful one”). Interacted with Jamestown settlers, likely saving John Smith in a symbolic adoption ceremony. Later kidnapped by the English, baptized as Rebecca, and married John Rolfe to symbolize Anglo-Native alliance. Taken to England as a display of “civilized” Native conversion and died of illness soon after. Her story became mythologized as one of harmony and assimilation, obscuring the violence of English colonization.

Tisquantum

Patuxet man repeatedly enslaved and transported between New England, Spain, and England before returning home to find his people wiped out by disease. Captured by the Wampanoag, later served as interpreter and intermediary between them and the Plymouth colonists. Taught the English survival techniques and brokered fragile alliances. His life shows the early entanglement of Native diplomacy, exploitation, and survival amid European colonization.

Wampum

Cylindrical shell beads used by Native peoples as currency, diplomatic gifts, and sacred symbols of trust and alliance. Adopted by Europeans for trade, tribute, and diplomacy. Production increased with European tools, turning wampum into a standardized currency in both Native and colonial markets. Beyond money, wampum represented kinship and reciprocal relationships—Europeans often entered political obligations they did not fully understand by accepting it.

Haudenosaunee

Alliance of five (later six) nations: Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca (later joined by the Tuscarora). Unified under Hiawatha’s leadership and symbolized by the Hiawatha Belt. Controlled a vast region from the Great Lakes to the Atlantic, dominating trade and diplomacy with Europeans. Forced Dutch and English merchants into disadvantageous trades, defying mercantilism by leveraging firearms and fur trade to maintain autonomy and regional power.

Hiawatha Belt

Wampum belt symbolizing the founding of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. Represents the unity of five nations under the Great Law of Peace, linked by a central council fire. Served as both a historical record and sacred object of diplomacy. Embodied the ideals of peace, unity, and shared governance that underpinned the confederacy’s strength and political stability.

The Pequot War

(1636–1638) Conflict between the English colonists, their Native allies (notably the Narragansett), and the Pequot nation, who had monopolized wampum production and trade. Sparked by competition over trade access and English attempts to bypass Pequot control. Ended with the near destruction and enslavement of the Pequots, consolidating English influence while expanding Haudenosaunee power and control over fur and wampum routes.

Quapaw

Small but influential nation located along the Mississippi and Arkansas Rivers. Welcomed French explorers in 1673 and strategically used trade relations to secure weapons and protection against rivals. Manipulated French mercantilism by choosing what to trade and with whom, maintaining autonomy and dominance over regional commerce for over a century. Controlled key river routes and forced Europeans to pay tolls and tribute within their territory.

Seven Years War

(1756–1763) Also called the French and Indian War in North America, it began over control of the Ohio River Valley, where Native alliances like those of the Shawnee and Haudenosaunee determined power. The French built Fort Duquesne in 1753 to block British expansion, alarming Virginians and land speculators. Britain’s General Edward Braddock led 2,000 troops to enforce claims but alienated Native allies, leading to his defeat and death in 1755. The war became a global conflict between Britain, France, and their European allies, ending in 1763 with Britain’s victory and major territorial gains, though it left deep debt and frontier unrest.

Shawnee

Native people of the Ohio River Valley descended from Mississippian corn-farming societies. Pushed west and south in the 1600s by the Haudenosaunee, they migrated to the Savannah River to join English trade networks and ensure safety. Later allied with the Delaware and became part of the Haudenosaunee diplomatic sphere. Controlled key hunting and trading territories between the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers and played a major role in alliances during the Seven Years War.

Treaty of Easton

(1758) Agreement between the British, French, and Native nations including the Haudenosaunee, Shawnee, and Delaware. Britain promised to stop colonial settlement west of the Appalachians and to respect Native hunting territories in the Ohio Valley. In exchange, Native groups ended hostilities and withdrew from the French alliance. The treaty caused the French to abandon Fort Duquesne and allowed Britain to take Quebec by 1759, sealing their victory in North America.

Edward Braddock

British general sent in 1755 to remove the French from the Ohio Valley. Rejected Native offers of alliance, telling Shawnee Chief Shingas that “no savages shall inherit the land.” His arrogance alienated potential allies and united the French and Native forces against him. Ambushed and killed near the Monongahela River, his defeat marked a turning point in Native-British relations and helped ignite the wider Seven Years War.

Articles of Confederation

(1777) The first governing document of the United States, created by the Second Continental Congress after independence. Modeled in part on the Haudenosaunee system of cooperative governance, it established a confederacy of equal states with limited central authority. Reflected the colonists’ distrust of monarchy and desire for local power after years of British control. Though too weak to manage trade and taxation, it laid the groundwork for the U.S. Constitution.

Shay’s Rebellion

(1786–1787) Uprising in western Massachusetts led by farmer and Revolutionary War veteran Daniel Shays against high taxes and debt collection. Sparked by economic depression, lack of war compensation, and unfair taxation in gold or silver, it united struggling farmers who saw the new government as repeating British tyranny. Suppressed by the state militia, the rebellion revealed the weakness of the Articles of Confederation and convinced national leaders like Washington and Madison of the need for a stronger federal government.

Northwest Ordinance

(1787) Law passed under the Confederation Congress that organized the Northwest Territory (future Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin). Established the process for territories to become states once population reached 60,000, guaranteed public education, and banned slavery north of the Ohio River. Though it pledged fair treatment toward Native peoples, it assumed their eventual removal or disappearance. Served as a model for U.S. expansion and reflected Enlightenment ideals of orderly growth and civic development.

The Virginia Plan

(1787) Constitutional proposal drafted by James Madison and presented by Edmund Randolph at the Philadelphia Convention. Rejected state sovereignty in favor of a strong national government with power to overturn state laws. Called for a bicameral legislature based on population, giving large states more influence. Proposed a three-tiered electoral system—citizens electing the lower house, which then selected the upper house, executive, and judiciary. Sparked debate leading to the Great Compromise, balancing population-based and equal state representation.

Treaty of Greenville

(1795) Peace agreement between the United States and the Native Western Confederacy after General “Mad” Anthony Wayne’s victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers. Natives ceded much of Ohio and parts of Indiana in exchange for goods and annual payments. While it allowed some Native territory to remain, the treaty opened the Northwest Territory to rapid American settlement and statehood. Marked the beginning of Native displacement in the Midwest and symbolized U.S. dominance over frontier lands.

The War of 1812

(1812–1815) Conflict between the United States and Britain caused by British trade restrictions, impressment of American sailors, and frontier tensions with British-backed Native groups. War Hawks like Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun urged President Madison to defend national honor and expand into Canada. Despite early defeats, U.S. victories in the Southwest and at the Battle of New Orleans (after the war’s end) fueled nationalism. Ended in a stalemate with the Treaty of Ghent but solidified America’s independence and unity.

Era of Good Feeling

(1817–1825) Period under President James Monroe marked by political unity within the Republican Party, expansion westward, and limited foreign conflict. Saw increased civic participation, removal of property requirements for voting among white men, and tensions over slavery and economic policies.

Monroe Doctrine

(1823) National policy declaring the Western Hemisphere closed to further European colonization and pledging US non-involvement in European wars. Asserted American influence in the hemisphere and protected newly independent republics in Latin America.

Missouri Compromise

(1820) Agreement admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state, maintaining the balance in Congress. Established the 36°30′ parallel as the boundary between future free and slave territories, temporarily defusing sectional conflict over slavery.

Old Hickory

(1824–1836) Nickname for Andrew Jackson, celebrated as a self-made man and war hero. Advocated for populist policies, Indian removal, opposition to the national bank, and expanded executive power. Became a symbol of the rise of the Democratic Party and western influence in national politics

Tippecanoe and Tyler Too

(1840) Campaign slogan for William Henry Harrison and John Tyler, highlighting Harrison’s military victory at Tippecanoe. First modern-style campaign featuring parades, buttons, and popular rallies. Harrison won the presidency but died one month later, leaving Tyler as president and sparking new partisan conflicts.

Manifest Destiny

(1840s–1850s) Belief that the United States was destined to expand across the North American continent, spreading democracy, capitalism, and Protestant values. Justified westward expansion and the acquisition of new territories, often at the expense of Native Americans, Mexico, and other foreign powers.

Mexican American War

(1846–1848) Conflict between the United States and Mexico following the annexation of Texas and disputes over its southern border. Resulted in the US acquiring vast territories in the Southwest, including California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.

Utah War

(1857–1858) Conflict between the US federal government and Mormon settlers in the Utah Territory under President James Buchanan. Sparked by tension over federal authority and Mormon polygamy; ended with a negotiated settlement and reaffirmation of federal control without large-scale violence.

Bleeding Kansas

(1854–1859) Series of violent confrontations in Kansas Territory over whether it would enter the Union as a free or slave state. Sparked by the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the concept of popular sovereignty, it foreshadowed the sectional conflict leading to the Civil War.

Squatter Sovereignty

(1850s) Policy allowing settlers of a territory to decide whether slavery would be permitted within their borders. Proposed as a compromise to ease sectional tensions but often led to violence and political conflict, as seen in Kansas and Nebraska.

Roger Taney

(1836–1864) Pro-slavery Supreme Court Chief Justice best known for the 1857 Dred Scott decision. Ruled that African Americans could not be citizens and that Congress could not prohibit slavery in federal territories, invalidating the Missouri Compromise and intensifying sectional divisions. His opinion helped spur the rise of the Republican Party and Lincoln’s political prominence.

Fire-eaters

(1850s–1860s) Radical pro-slavery Southern politicians who advocated for the immediate secession of Southern states to protect and expand slavery. Rejected compromises like the Missouri Compromise and fueled sectional tensions, contributing directly to the formation of the Confederate States of America.

The Crittenden Compromise

(1860–1861) Proposed attempt to prevent Southern secession by protecting existing slavery and extending the Missouri Compromise line to California. Rejected by Lincoln and Republicans, who feared it would expand slavery; its failure contributed to the outbreak of the Civil War.

Confiscation Act

(1861–1862) Federal legislation allowing Union forces to seize Confederate property, including slaves, as contraband of war. Provided a legal framework for emancipation in rebel territories and encouraged African Americans to join Union forces, helping shift the war toward a campaign against slavery.

Special Order 15

(1865) Union military order issued by General William Sherman during the March to the Sea, setting aside 400,000 acres of confiscated Southern land for freed African Americans. Though largely symbolic, it represented wartime efforts to redistribute land and aid former slaves.

Combee River

(1863) Operation led by Harriet Tubman in South Carolina, during which she guided over 150 enslaved people to freedom while targeting plantations. First woman to lead a major military operation, demonstrating the active role of African Americans and women in Union military efforts.

EC Boundinot

Nephew of a Cherokee general and slave owner who pushed the Cherokee Nation to ally with the Confederacy during the Civil War. Advocated for Native participation in the Confederacy, believing it would protect Cherokee sovereignty and leverage their strategic position.

Ely Parker

Haudensaunee (Seneca) leader, trained in law and engineering, initially barred from the bar exam due to race. Served as Union engineer under Ulysses Grant, drafted Confederate surrender agreements and post-war Native treaties. Later appointed Commissioner of Indian Affairs by Grant to protect Native rights and promote citizenship.

Andrew Johnson

Lincoln’s Vice President who became President after Lincoln’s assassination (1865). Southern Democrat and former slaveholder, opposed Radical Reconstruction, vetoed key legislation like the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and Reconstruction Acts. Survived impeachment by one vote but became politically irrelevant. His policies allowed Southern states to enact Black Codes and resist Reconstruction, fueling conflict with Republicans.

Ulysses Grant

Union general and Civil War hero, friend of Ely Parker, oversaw Confederate surrender. Elected President in 1868 with strong Republican support. Enforced Reconstruction through the 15th Amendment and military intervention against groups like the KKK. Oversaw Southern readmission into the Union, protected African American rights, and used federal troops to suppress resistance, though his administration faced political challenges and waning Northern support by 1874.

The Homestead Act

(1862) Gave low-cost land to settlers, incentivizing westward migration, especially for poor Northern families. Encouraged population growth in the West and tied northern support to the Civil War. By 1900, nearly 600,000 families had moved west using this law.

The Indian Appropriations Act

Ended recognition of Native tribes as sovereign nations and prohibited new treaties. Forced Native Americans east of the Rockies into reservations, creating conflicts between tribes and enabling settlers and railroads to claim land. Formalized federal control over Native lands.

Bimettalism

System of currency based on both gold and silver, standard before 1870s. The U.S. switched to the gold standard in 1873 (Crime of 1873), limiting the money supply, upsetting Western miners, and lowering per capita money value. Republicans used the gold standard to stabilize the economy and expand industrial capitalism.

William Seward

Secretary of State (1861–1869), advocate for expansion and trade with Asia. Negotiated treaties for missionary and immigrant access to China, and purchased Alaska from Russia (“Seward’s Folly”) for naval and economic advantages. Promoted private investment and railroad expansion to tie the U.S. together economically and geographically.

Dawes Act

Divided Native reservations into individual landholdings to encourage assimilation. Surplus lands were sold to whites, stripping tribes of territory and undermining communal culture. Led to loss of 66% of Native land and weakened tribal autonomy while attempting to integrate Native Americans into white society.