Syntax & Semantics Vocabulary Flashcards

Flashcards on English Syntax and Semantics topics including constituency tests, clause elements, coordination, adverbials, verb classes, genitives, relative clauses, modification, complement clauses, and clefts.

I bought it.

it = pronoun substituting for an NP (pronominalization test)

We thought about going to Cannes for our vacation next year, but no one goes there any more.

there = pro-adverbial referring to place

We thought about going to Cannes for our vacation next year, but decided in the end to do something else then.

then = pro-adverbial referring to time

I think that John is very wealthy, but no one else believes so.

so = pro-form standing for a whole clause

The cat, the dog was chasing.

fronting (topicalization) of the Object

The student the teacher gave a book to.

fronting with preposition stranding

A short book was read by the new teacher in the library.

passivization test for objecthood

What the new teacher read in the library was a short book.

pseudo-clefting

It was a short book that the teacher read in the library.

clefting

What was the new teacher reading in the library? A short book.

answer-fragment (stand-alone) test

A: Who were you talking to? B: To my boyfriend.

answer fragment with preposition retained (constituent = PP)

*A: Who were you ringing up? B: Up my boyfriend.

ungrammatical fragment showing 'up' is not a preposition here (particle, not PP)

She took off the label. / She took the label off.

reversible particle order = diagnostic for phrasal verb

*He referred to the book. / He referred the book to.

non-reversible order = diagnostic for prepositional verb

She took OFF the label.

stress on particle = phrasal verb

He REFERRED to the book.

stress on the verb = prepositional verb

He referred to it.

unstressed pronoun after preposition = prepositional verb

*She took off it.

ungrammatical unstressed pronoun after particle = phrasal verb test

Did he refer to the book or to the article?

repeated preposition in coordination = prepositional verb

*Did she take off the red label or off the yellow one?

ungrammatical repeated particle = phrasal verb

Just get out of here.

particle + preposition combination = phrasal-prepositional verb

there's a mark on this chair

there = existential there (single-word class, always clause-initial)

I've seen him there.

there = ordinary locative adverb

you just can't do that!

not = negator (its own word class)

what do you want to drink?

to = infinitive marker (its own word class)

In this chapter a description will be given of the food assistance programs that address the needs of the family.

discontinuous NP (split by a clause)

The current year has definitely started well.

discontinuous VP (split by an adverb)

You couldn't have a better name than that.

discontinuous AjP

The whites didn't bear speaking on.

discontinuous PP

You're joking! / Are you joking?

Subject–VP order vs. Subject–operator inversion

Kate wrote this. > This was written by Kate.

Subject demotion in the passive

The university charges too much for parking, doesn't it?

question tag repeating the grammatical Subject (subjecthood test)

There are five members absent, aren't there?

there = anticipatory (grammatical) Subject

They've elected Harry.

Subject as Agent/'doer' in a material process

She liked the present very much.

Subject as Senser in a mental process

The present pleased her very much.

Subject as Phenomenon/trigger in a mental process

Harry will be the next leader of the school.

Subject as identity-bearer in a copula construction

He's read the book. > The book was read by him.

promotion to Subject via passive, changing topic

It's warm here.

it = empty/dummy Subject

There is a spider in the bath.

there = grammatical Subject; a spider = notional Subject

It's a pity that you can't come.

it = provisional Subject; extraposition of the real (clausal) Subject

That you can't come is a pity.

non-extraposed (stylistically rare) clausal Subject

He bought some biscuits and milk.

Direct Object immediately following the verb

He bought us some biscuits and milk.

Indirect Object intervening before the Direct Object

Take it easy.

it = empty Direct Object

We found it necessary to postpone the meeting.

it = provisional Direct Object; to postpone the meeting = extraposed DO

He poured me some tea.

Indirect Object denoting the Recipient

He gave me some flowers.

Indirect Object as Recipient (given to me)

He bought me some flowers.

Indirect Object as Beneficiary (done for me)

I don't care for his parties.

Prepositional Object licensed by a prepositional verb

I envied him for his freedom.

Direct Object + Prepositional Object co-occurring

I think of it as indispensable.

two Prepositional Objects in one clause

Jane seemed angry.

Subject Predicative characterizing the Subject

He found Jane intolerant.

Object Predicative characterizing the Object

He seemed a nice guy.

Subject Predicative realized by an NP

I considered it bad advice.

Object Predicative realized by an NP

They appointed him secretary.

Object Predicative with a complex-transitive verb

Ken slept for ten hours.

Circumstantial (optional) Adverbial

Fortunately, this did not happen.

Stance Adverbial

Furthermore, it's not true.

Linking Adverbial

Your toast is on the table.

Obligatory Adverbial in a copular pattern

She remained in Japan until October.

two Obligatory Adverbials (place + duration)

She put the flowers in the vase.

Obligatory Adverbial in a complex-transitive pattern

I treated her badly.

Obligatory manner Adverbial (meaning changes if omitted)

And, above all, I would like to thank you.

coordinating conjunction as a peripheral element

Because I didn't like it.

subordinating conjunction as a peripheral element

Ouch, that hurt!

interjection as a peripheral element

They haven't finished it, have they?

question tag as a peripheral element

I really enjoyed it, I did.

declarative tag

Has it got double doors, that shop?

NP tag / right dislocation

Her parents, I don't like them at all.

preface / left dislocation

Back in those days — these were the days before television — we all …

parenthetical

Kim, dinner's ready.

vocative

Come out, whoever you are!

vocative realized by a nominal-relative clause

He commented on my essay.

Predicator realized by a prepositional verb

She took off the label.

Predicator realized by a phrasal verb

To Pat, the key was given, wasn't it?

PO shown to be oblique (cannot become passive Subject)

Pat was given the key.

the bare argument (without preposition) can be promoted to Subject

*He sent the key to Los Angeles. / Los Angeles was sent the key.

Adverbial vs. Object contrast (passivization test)

I'm very much looking forward to your visit.

mono-transitive phrasal-prepositional verb

He put down his bad temper on stress.

ditransitive phrasal-prepositional verb

It's modern but it's clean.

coordination of two equal clauses

Although it's modern, it's clean.

subordination (embedding)

It's clean although modern.

ellipsis inside a subordinate clause

Should they be late, we will have to postpone the meeting.

subject–verb inversion marking a conditional subclause (no linking word)

He was screaming because he had to go home.

subordinating conjunction with no function inside the subclause

That's what I'll do tomorrow.

what = wh-word functioning as Direct Object inside the subclause

Kim and Pat speak excellent French.

coordination of two nouns forming a compound NP

He can see you this afternoon or on Tuesday.

coordination of an NP and a PP (unlike categories, same function)

Did the boss or her secretary tell you that?

coordination of two NPs

She was extremely bright and very humble.

coordination of two AjPs

He was driving very fast and quite carelessly.

coordination of two AvPs

There's a copy on the desk and in the top drawer.

coordination of two PPs

I have read and will obey the Responsibility Code.

coordination of two VPs

I need pen and paper.

coordination of two nouns forming a compound NP

A safer and healthier working environment.

coordination of two adjectives forming a compound AjP

Before or after the presentation?

coordination of two prepositions

She finished the report and ø went home.

ellipsis of the repeated Subject in a coordinate clause

They found her son and ø younger daughter.

ellipsis of a repeated Determiner in coordinated NPs

It was extremely expensive and in bad taste.

coordination of unlike categories (AjP + PP) as Predicative