Chapter 15 Human Communications

Public speaking

Formal, structured communication in which a speaker addresses an audience.

Importance of public speaking

It improves cognition, relationships, professional success, identity formation, and public discourse.

Benefits of effective public speaking

Improved cognition, better relationship development, greater professional success, meaningful identity formation, and encouragement of public discourse.

Public discourse

The sharing and discussion of ideas throughout society.

Public speaking vs. public discourse

Public speaking = a structured speaker addressing an audience. Public discourse = society sharing and discussing ideas.

How public speaking improves cognition

It can improve memory, focus, organization, and critical thinking.

How public speaking helps relationships

Communication helps people create and maintain relationships.

How public speaking contributes to professional success

Strong communication skills are important in careers and workplaces.

How public speaking contributes to identity formation

Communication helps people understand and develop their identities.

How public speaking encourages public discourse

It allows people to share ideas and participate in society.

Major types of speeches

Informative, persuasive, small group, and special occasion.

Informative speech

A speech designed to provide knowledge or increase understanding.

Focus of an informative speech

Objects, events, concepts, processes, and people.

Persuasive speech

A speech designed to influence an audience’s opinions, beliefs, or actions.

Goals of persuasive speeches

Passive agreement and a call to action.

Passive agreement

Getting the audience to agree with the speaker’s position.

Call to action

Asking the audience to take a specific action.

Small group speech

A speech delivered to a small number of people.

Special occasion speech

A speech given for a particular event or occasion.

Elevator pitch

A short, prepared speech usually lasting about 30 seconds to 2 minutes.

Audience analysis

Studying an audience’s characteristics, knowledge, interests, and attitudes to adapt a speech.

Importance of audience analysis

It helps the speaker adapt the speech to the listeners.

Audience-centered speaking

Keeping the audience at the center of the speech-making process.

Importance of posture

Good posture can communicate confidence and credibility.

Importance of eye contact

It creates connection, engagement, and credibility.

Vocal fillers

Words or sounds such as 'um,' 'uh,' 'like,' and 'you know.'

Avoiding vocal fillers

They can interfere with fluency and make a speaker appear less confident.

Residual message

The main idea the audience should remember after the speech.

Ethical communication

Communicating honestly, responsibly, and respectfully without intentionally misleading others.

Plagiarism

Using someone else’s material as your own.

Rapid impression formation

The tendency to make immediate judgments about someone.

Importance of powerful beginnings and endings

The beginning creates a first impression, and the conclusion reinforces the residual message.

Difference between practice and rehearsal

Practice builds familiarity while keeping delivery natural; excessive rehearsal can make delivery mechanical.

Articulation

The physical adjustment of speech organs to produce sounds.

Pronunciation

Expressing word sounds and accents according to accepted standards.

Enunciation

Pronouncing words clearly.

Accent

Pronunciation associated with a particular language, culture, region, or locale.

Dialect

A variation in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.

Diaphragmatic breathing

Deep abdominal breathing that can relax the body, strengthen the voice, improve concentration, and support lung capacity.

Use of natural gestures

Gestures can emphasize points and add nonverbal meaning.

Distracting body language to avoid

Excessive pacing, swaying, rocking, hair twirling, leg shaking, and foot tapping.

Using notecards or outlines

They help speakers stay organized, maintain eye contact, and sound natural.

Function of visual aids

Support the speech and highlight important information.

SOFTEN

Smile, Open body, Facial expressions, Tone, Eye contact, Natural gestures.

Code switching

Changing speech style, behavior, appearance, or expression depending on the situation or audience.

Steps of speech preparation

Identify type → choose topic → research → construct outline → create speaking outline → add delivery cues → prepare/review.

Brainstorming

Generating ideas through free association.

Self-inquiry

Asking yourself questions to generate possible speech topics.

Clustering

Grouping ideas according to themes or associations.

Evaluating research

Consider authorship, sponsorship, credibility, and timeliness.

Outline

An organized structure showing the main points and subpoints of a speech.

Preparation outline

The complete working outline of a speech.

Speaking outline

A shortened outline used during speech delivery.

Difference between preparation and speaking outlines

The preparation outline contains the complete speech plan; the speaking outline is a shortened version used while speaking.

Delivery cues

Reminders about how to deliver the speech, such as 'pause,' 'slow down,' or 'make eye contact.'

Full-sentence outline

An outline that uses complete sentences.

Phrase outline

An outline that uses shorter phrases instead of complete sentences.

Public speaking anxiety

Fear of giving an oral presentation because of an expectation of humiliation or negative evaluation.

Glossophobia

Fear of public speaking.

Forms of speech anxiety

Physiological, cognitive, and behavioral.

Physiological anxiety

Physical responses such as increased heart rate, sweating, or dry mouth.

Cognitive anxiety

Mental responses such as self-doubt, feeling unprepared, or fear of forgetting.

Behavioral anxiety

Observable behaviors such as long pauses, leg shifting, or hair twirling.

Causes of public speaking anxiety

Fear of judgment, mistakes, forgetting information, embarrassment, or feeling unprepared.

Ways to reduce speech anxiety

Prepare, practice aloud, use breathing techniques, warm up, visualize success, accept imperfection, and use nervous energy positively.

Positive self-fulfilling prophecy

Expecting yourself to perform well, which can encourage more confident behavior.

Visualization

Imagining yourself being prepared, confident, successful, and connected with the audience.

Scripted speech

A speech written out and delivered word-for-word.

Extemporaneous speech

A prepared and organized speech delivered naturally using notes.

Impromptu speech

A speech delivered with little or no preparation.

Differences in speech types

Scripted = word-for-word; Extemporaneous = prepared but natural; Impromptu = little/no preparation.

Difference between informative and persuasive speaking

Informative speaking provides knowledge; persuasive speaking attempts to influence beliefs, opinions, or actions.

Speech and public discourse

Public speaking is a formal speaker addressing an audience; public discourse is society sharing ideas.

Preparation vs. speaking outlines

Preparation outlines are the complete plan; speaking outlines are the shortened version used during delivery.

Delivery types comparison

Scripted is word-for-word; extemporaneous is prepared but natural; impromptu has little or no preparation.

Brainstorming vs. clustering vs. self-inquiry

Brainstorming generates ideas; clustering groups related ideas; self-inquiry asks questions to discover topics.

Articulation vs. pronunciation vs. enunciation vs. accent vs. dialect

Articulation produces sounds; pronunciation follows accepted word sounds; enunciation makes words clear; accent and dialect include pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.

Forms of anxiety

Physiological = physical; cognitive = mental; behavioral = observable actions.

Most important thing to remember from a speech

The residual message.

Avoiding information overload

Too much information can overwhelm the audience and distract from the main message.

Overall goal of effective public speaking

To communicate a clear message effectively and ethically while adapting to the audience and using appropriate verbal and nonverbal delivery.