Chapter 1 + 2: Intro to Psych, Research in Psych

Psychology

The scientific study of mental processes and behavior

Structuralism

An early school of psychology focused on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components to understand the structure of the mind

Functionalism

An early school of psychology focused on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components to understand the structure of the mind

It emerged as a reaction to structuralism and was heavily influenced by evolutionary theory, emphasizing how mental and behavioral processes help individuals survive and thrive. Key figures include William James and John Dewey

Psychoanslysis 

A type of talk therapy and a theory of the mind that explores how unconscious thoughts and feelings influence our behavior.

A therapist helps a patient uncover repressed emotions, memories, and conflicts by discussing their dreams and past experiences. The goal is to bring the unconscious to the conscious, allowing the individual to understand and work through the root causes of their problems.

Gestalt

A school of psychology that views the mind as a holistic entity that perceives its experiences as an organized whole, rather than as the sum of its individual parts. This concept is famously summarized as "the whole is different from the sum of its parts".

Behaviorism

A school of psychology focused on observable behaviors learned through interactions with the environment via conditioning. 

Focus on observable behavior:

Behaviorism studies only what can be seen and measured, such as a person's actions and reactions, rather than internal thoughts or emotions. 

Environmental conditioning:

It emphasizes that behavior is a result of environmental stimuli and the process of conditioning, where behaviors are learned through a system of rewards and punishments. (ex. Classical and Operant Conditioning)

Psychodynamic Perspective

A modern perspective of psychology that focuses on how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior. Emphasizes early life experiences and how they shape an individual's internal processes. 

Behavioral Perspective

A modern perspective of psychology that examines how observable behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment, such as through conditioning and reinforcement. Focuses on scientific observation of behavior rather than internal mental states. 

Humanistic Perpective

A modern perspective of psychology that highlights a person's innate drive toward self-actualization, personal growth, and self-fulfillment. emphasizes free will, individual values, and the potential for personal choice in shaping one's destiny. 

Cognitive Perspective

A modern perspective of psychology that studies internal mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving. Assumes that the way we think directly influences our behavior. 

Biological Perspective 

A modern perspective of psychology that focuses on how the brain, nervous system, genetics, and other physical factors influence behavior. Examines the physical and genetic basis for mental processes and behavior. 

Sociocultural Perspective

A modern perspective of psychology that emphasizes the role of social and cultural influences on behavior and thought. Examines how societal norms, values, and the cultural environment shape individuals. 

Evolutionary Perspective 

A modern perspective of psychology that applies the theory of natural selection to explain how behaviors and mental processes have evolved. Seeks to understand the adaptive function of certain behaviors and cognitive traits, such as memory or perception. 

Goals of psychology

Describe, explain, predict and influence behavior and mental processes.

Steps of the Scientifc Method 

Typically include making an observation,

asking a question,

conducting background research,

forming a hypothesis,

testing the hypothesis with an experiment,

analyzing the data,

drawing a conclusion

Theory

A big idea intended to describe, explain and predict

Hypothesis

An educated guess based on a theory that can be supported through scientific testing

*cannot prove, only support

Population

Identifiable members of a group

Generalize

A claim that what we have learned from our sample holds true for the larger population of interest

Sample

Representative of a population

*The larger, the more reliable the finding 

Experimental Group 

The group exposed to the independent variable 

Control Group 

The group that doesn’t receive treatment/Intervention 

Random Assignment

Allocating participants to different experimental groups in a manner that ensures each participant has an equal change of being placed in any group.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated by the y, believed to cause a change in another variable

*If there is a drug in the study it’s most likely this variable

Experimental Study

A type of study with a deliberate manipulation of a variable to see whether corresponding changes in behavior result, allowing for the determination of cause and effect relationships

operationalizing the dependent variable

Finding a method to measure your DV so you can compare it between

Naturalistic Observation

A type of observation that involves watching people in their everyday environment

A clinical interview is usually guided by which party

participant guided

*Typically open ended questions

Case Studies

A type of study where one individual is studied in great detail

A structured interview is typically guided by which party

Researcher guided

*Typically close-ended questions

Participant Observation

A type of data collection where the researcher becomes a member of the community they’re studying

Surveys

A type of data collection involving paper/pencil (online), given to a representative sample of a population

(-) Curtsey bias, trying to be polite

Correlation

A statistical measure that describes the extent to which two variables have a relationship (Direction and Stength)

Positive Correlation

A type of correlation where variables move in the same direction

Negative Correlation

A type of correlation where variables move in the opposite direction

Reason for establishing causation

The reason is to understand the why behind behaviors and psychological phenomena

*Used to avoid misleading conclusions (e.g. correlation DOES NOT EQUAL cause-and-effect)

Single-Blind Study

A type of study to eliminate researcher and participant bias where only the researcher knows the treatment group

Double-Blind Study

A type of study that eliminates researcher and participant bias where both the researcher and participant are unaware of the treatment groups

Observer’s Effect

Observee alters their behavior when they are being observed

Observer’s Bias

A type of bias where the researcher wants their hypothesis to be proven don’t, therefore they struggle with objectivity

Curtesy Bias

Participant bias where the participant alters their answers in an attempt to be polite

Placebo Effect

A phenomenon where the expectations of participants in a study can influence their behavior