Introduction to World Philosophies

These flashcards provide definitions for key terms and thinkers from major Western and Eastern philosophical traditions, covering periods from the Pre-Socratics to the 20th century, as well as foundational concepts in world religions.

Philosopy

The use of human reason to investigate the ultimate causes, reasons, and principles that govern all things.

philia + sophia

The Greek roots for the term philosophy, meaning ‐‐a word of wisdom.‐‐

Pythagoras (Western Philosophy Context)

A mathematician and the first person to call himself a philosopho, or a lover of wisdom.

Metaphysics

The study of ultimate reality and existence.

Epistomology

The study of knowledge.

Ethics

Principles of right and wrong, virtue, vice, and moral duties.

Logic

The study of correct reasoning.

Aesthetics

The study of beauty, art, and sensory emotional values.

Pre Socratics

Philosophers originating from Europe (Greece) during the period before Socrates.

Thales

A philosopher who believed that the composition of all things is WATER.

Anaximander

A philosopher who believed all things are created from an indefinite realm called APEIRON.

Anaximenese

A philosopher who believed AIR makes up all things.

Pythagoras (Composition View)

He believed that all things are made up of NUMBERS.

Heraditus

A philosopher who believed everything that exists is based on FIRE (logos); he said, ‐‐You cannot step twice in the same river, for fresh waters are ever flowing upon you.‐‐

Democritus

He believed all things are composed of tiny particles called the atom.

Cynicism

A philosophical outlook characterized as negative, critical, or judgmental.

Socrates

Known as the Father of Philosophy.

Plato

The philosopher who founded The Academy of Athens.

Aristotle

Identified as the ‐‐Father of Western Logic‐‐ and founder of the school in Athens called ‐‐Lyseum.‐‐

Stoicism

A Roman-era philosophy focused on morality, virtue, and calm.

Seneca

A Stoic philosopher who described anger as temporary madness.

Epictetus

He argued that suffering occurs only when we attach happiness to things outside our control, emphasizing ‐‐The Dichotomy of Control.‐‐

Marcus Aurelius

A Stoic who believed we only have control over our own thoughts, impulses, and actions.

Theocentric

The God-centered focus characteristic of the Medieval Period.

Scholasticism

A Medieval approach used to define and explain religious doctrines.

Aquinas

He believed the human soul is immaterial and subsistent, capable of existing independently of the physical body.

Augustine

Defined evil as a privatio boni, which means a privation or absence of goodness.

Meistar Eckhart

Taught Ohne Warum (living without a why), where actions are performed for their own sake without ulterior motives.

Renaissance Humanicism

A period and movement emphasizing the human person.

Petrarch

The Father of Humanism who argued philosophy should focus on human nature.

Desiderus Erasmus

Proponent of Philosophia Cristi, viewing Christianity as the cultivation of docta pietas (learned piety).

Nicchdo Machiavelli

Known for the phrase ‐‐The end justify the means,‐‐ implying results matter more than methods.

Francis Rebelais

A writer, physician, and humanist during the Renaissance.

Rationalism

An Enlightenment view where logic is considered the basis of knowledge.

Rene Descartes

Developed Cartesian Dualism, the idea that the mind and body are different things.

Gottfried Ceibriz

He believed that knowledge is born within the mind.

Autonomy

As defined by Immanuel Kart, choosing to act morally because it is the right thing to do.

Heteronomy

The state of being controlled by something outside your own moral reasoning.

Empiricism

The belief that senses and experience are the source of knowledge.

David Humme

An empiricist who noted that we believe cause produces the same effect based on past patterns.

Francis Bacon

Stated that the goal of science was the ‐‐relief of man’s estate.‐‐

Voltaire

Criticized the Catholic Church and religious fanaticism.

Jean Jarques Rousseau

Asserted that supreme power rests solely with the people.

Thomas Hobbes

Argued that without government, humanity exists in the state of nature, which is chaotic and violent.

John Stuart Mill

Stated, ‐‐It is better to be a human dissatisfied rather than a pig satisfied.‐‐

Positivism

A Modern Period view focusing on observable phenomena.

Aguste Comte

A positivist who believed the only authentic knowledge is scientific knowledge.

Utilitarianism

The ethical theory that an action is morally right if a great number of people benefits from it.

Jeremy Bentham

Developed the Principle of utility; actions are right if they produce happiness and wrong if they cause pain.

Pragmatism

A $20\text{th}$-century philosophy focused on the practical use of knowledge and ideas.

Charles Pierce

Believed the scientific method is the only way to deal with doubt because it allows for experimentation.

William James

Argued that religious beliefs matter based on their practical effect on life.

John Dewey

Viewed beliefs as instrumental tools used to navigate our environment.

Existentialism

A movement focused on the views and actions of individuals.

Soren Kierkegaard

Criticized mass society because individuals were becoming too influenced by society rather than their own selves.

Friedrich Nietsche

Questioned traditional morality and sought to overcome limiting values.

Martin Heidegger

Conceptualized Dasein (human beings) and noted that people avoid thinking of mortality to avoid discomfort.

Jean-Paul Sarte

Taught that we have the freedom to make choices but must be responsible for them.

Simone de Beauvoir

Explored how society teaches and shapes what it means to be a woman.

Judaism

A monotheistic religion founded on a relationship with one God.

Torah

The foundational text of Judaism containing divine teachings.

Covenant

The relationship or agreement between God and the people in Judaism.

Hinduism

A polytheistic religion with a Pantheon of Gods, including $3$ main deities.

Brahna

The Creator God in Hinduism.

Vishnu

The Preserver God in Hinduism.

Shima

The Destroyer or Transformer God in Hinduism.

Samsara

The cycle of birth or rebirth in Hinduism and Buddhism.

Dharma

Duties and righteous behaviors in Hinduism.

Karma

The effects of one’s actions on current and future lives.

Shintoism

The indigenous, polytheistic, and animistic religion of Japan.

Kami

Divine spirits found in nature within Shintoism.

Jainism

A religion asserting the universe is eternal and liberation is achieved through discipline and karma.

Ahimsa

The Jain vow to avoid harm.

Satya

The Jain vow of truthfulness.

Asteya

The Jain vow of no stealing.

Brahmacharya

The Jain vow of faithfulness.

Aparigraha

The Jain vow of detachment from material possessions.

Buddhism

Founded by Siddharta Gautama, focusing on understanding and ending suffering.

Confucianism

A philosophy focusing on moral character and good relationships rather than deities.

Ren

The Confucian virtue of benevolence.

Yi

The Confucian virtue of righteous behavior.

Li

The Confucian virtue of propriety.

Zhi

The Confucian virtue of wisdom.

Xin

The Confucian virtue of trustworthiness.

Filial Piety (Xiao)

Respect for parents and ancestors in Confucianism.

Taoism

A philosophy about living in harmony with the natural flow of the universe.

Tao

The way or the natural order of the universe.

Yin and yang

The concept of balance in Taoism.

Islam

A monotheistic religion worshipping Allah and following Muhammad’s teachings.

Quran

The holy book of Islam.

Hadith

Collection of the sayings and actions of Muhammad.

Shahada

The First Pillar of Islam: Faith.

Salat

The Second Pillar of Islam: Prayer.

Zakat

The Third Pillar of Islam: Charity.

Sawm

The Fourth Pillar of Islam: Fasting.

Hajj

The Fifth Pillar of Islam: Pilgrimage to Mecca.

Sikhism

A monotheistic religion focusing on equality, meditation, and helping others.

Wahegaru

The supreme creator in Sikhism.

Meditation

Communicating with God.