The Roman Republic

Romulus and Remus

• Romulus and Remus: twin sons of a queen and Mars, god of war

• Abandoned in a marsh by an evil king

• Raised by a wolf who fed them milk

Founding of Rome: 1

• Rescued by a shepherd and raised as his sons

• As adults, planned to found a city in honour of their parents

• Disagreed on the city’s location, so left decision to the gods

Founding of Rome: 2

• Gods chose Romulus’ plan to build on Palatine Hill

• Remus became angry

• Romulus killed Remus to uphold gods’ will

• Founded Rome on Palatine Hill in 753 BC

Romans and the Gods

• Romans believed in many gods who interacted directly with humans

• Gods could help, harm, or have children with humans

• Worship and sacrifices were needed to gain their favour

• Choice of god depended on desired help

• Example: Neptune, god of the sea, was offered sacrifices before ocean voyages

The Roman Worldview

• Romans believed their civilisation was superior and should be adopted by others

• “Civilised” = followed Roman laws and customs; others were “barbarians”

• “Civilised” people could become citizens with benefits like voting

• Citizenship required sacrifices, e.g., men serving in the military

Patricians

• Patricians = Rome’s social elite, status by birth

• Controlled wealth, business, and political positions

• Law protected all citizens equally, but Patricians often favoured in society

Plebians

• Plebeians = citizens who were not Patricians

• Included both wealthy and poor

• Could serve in the Senate, but many lacked wealth to gain political power

Slaves: 1

• Slaves often prisoners of war or people unable to repay debts

• Legally property with no rights; owners could kill them

• Children of female slaves were born slaves

Slaves: 2

• Slaves could be freed by their masters and granted certain rights

• Educated slaves, especially skilled in maths, were highly valued

Slaves: 3

• Slaves could serve the same master for life and represent him in business

• Freed slaves became citizens called freemen, a type of Plebeian

Non-citizens

• Foreigners from “civilised” societies (e.g., Greeks) got temporary rights in Roman cities

• Could not usually buy property or live in cities without special permission

• “Barbarians” were denied rights and legal protection

Entertainment

• Relaxation and entertainment were key to being “civilised”

• Wealthy Romans and Senators hosted public feasts, gladiator fights, and chariot races to gain public favour

• Plays, poems, and literature were popular, especially among educated Patricians

Attitudes Towards Death

• Death was common and accepted in Roman life

• Gladiator deaths were public spectacles

• Suicide of disgraced public figures was expected and glorified

• Dying for the Republic was considered an honorable death

Roman Politics

• Republic’s system aimed to prevent a single person gaining power

• High-ranking officials, called Magistrates, were elected by the people

• Magistrates were advised by the Senate

• Senators were appointed by Magistrates and had to be wealthy men of good moral character

The Senate: 1

• Roman Senate = most prestigious governing body in the Republic

• Began as advisory council to early kings

• By late Republic (133–27 BCE), directed much of Rome’s domestic and foreign affairs

The Senate: 2

• Senate membership restricted to wealthy male citizens, mainly Patricians; some wealthy Plebeians could join

• By Julius Caesar’s time, about 600 members served for life once appointed

The Senate: 3

• Senators = distinguished by their clothing - wore togas with broad purple stripes and special red shoes

• Met in the Curia in the Roman Forum

• Senate controlled finances, directed foreign policy, oversaw religious matters, and advised elected Magistrates, especially consuls

Consuls

• Rome was led by two Consuls who ruled for one year

• Consuls were Magistrates, elected by the people, not the Senate

• an individual could become a Consul more than once; Julius Caesar was Consul three times

• Only former Consuls could become Censors

Consular Power

• The Consuls were very powerful

• Consuls had full military authority

• Could veto each other’s decisions

• Ruled in alternating months

Family History

• Caesar came from an old, politically powerful Patrician family

• Julii claimed descent from goddess Venus

• Three of his relatives were Consuls during his childhood

• His mother Aurelia was from the powerful gens Aurelii

Early Life

• Caesar married Cornelia, daughter of Consul Cinna

• His uncle, Gaius Marius, was one of Cinna’s top generals

• Caesar became priest of Jupiter (high honour, but meant he could not take part in politics)

Caesar and Sulla

• During Sulla’s overthrow of Cinna, Caesar went into hiding

• Negotiated to resign as priest of Jupiter while keeping his wife and slaves

• This allowed him to take a political position in a Roman province

• Built political and military career using family connections

Political Career

• Caesar was ambitious, rapidly gaining powerful positions

• Became Consul in 59 BC, popular with ordinary Romans

• Policies: cut taxes, published Senate minutes, enforced harsh punishments for corruption

Gaul

• After Consulship, Caesar led army to Gaul to quiet uprisings

• Likely aimed to support future political ambitions

• Gaul campaign boosted his popularity in Rome and built personal wealth

Post Civil War

• Caesar was appointed Dictator to restore order, a role allowed by Roman law for specific problems

• Example: Dictator could investigate Senator corruption, then step down

• In 44 BC, Caesar was made Dictator for life

Events Leading up to the Assassination

• Livy identifies three key events leading to Caesar’s assassination

• Caesar did not rise to meet the Senate, seen as disrespectful and indicated that he considered himself above them

• Some Plebeians called Caesar “Rex” (King); a Jupiter’s wreath was placed on his statue

• During a festival, Marc Antony placed a crown on Caesar’s head; he refused it, but only after the crowd did not cheer

Fears About Caesar

• Some events may have been exaggerated or staged by Caesar’s enemies

• Together, they caused senators to fear Caesar intended to become King of Rome

• Rome’s history with kings made this unacceptable to the Senate

The Plotters:

60–80 plotters in total, led by two key men:

• Gaius Cassius Longinus: senator, supported Pompey, offended by Caesar’s promotions

• Marcus Junius Brutus: senator, Cassius’ brother-in-law, initially supported Caesar, joined Pompey, believed assassination was the only way to stop Caesar

Day of the Assassination

• 15th of March: Caesar planned to attend a Senate meeting; bodyguards could not enter

• His wife warned him after a nightmare, urging him not to go

• A plotter mocked him for listening to superstitions, convincing Caesar to attend anyway

The Assassination

• Caesar arrived at the Senate with Mark Antony; a plotter distracted Antony, leaving Caesar alone

• During the meeting, plotters attacked; Caesar initially resisted one attacker

• He was ultimately stabbed 23 times and died on the Senate floor

• Last words are disputed: some say he said nothing, others report, “You too, my boy?” to Brutus

Aftermath

• Plotters expected to be seen as heroes, but this did not happen

• Rome descended into chaos: non-involved senators fled, plebeians rioted, Senate House burned

• Caesar left his estate and titles to his 18-year-old nephew, Octavius, who was supported by Mark Antony

• Cassius and Brutus fled to Greece to raise an army for another civil war

The Liberator’s Civil War

• After Caesar’s assassination, Rome returned to civil war

• Brutus and Cassius gathered supporters in Greece

• Octavian held power in Rome with Mark Antony’s support

• March 44 BC – October 42 BC: Brutus and Cassius plundered Roman colonies with their armies

• October 42 BC: Octavian and Mark Antony cornered them at Philippi, Greece

• Cassius’ army defeated in first week of October; Brutus’ defeated two weeks later

Fate of Cassius and Brutus

Realising he had lost → Cassius had his servant kill him.

When he found out, Brutus declared Cassius to be “the last true Roman”.

2 weeks later → Brutus killed himself using his own sword.

Last words of Brutus = “by all means we must flee, but with our hands, not our feet”.

The Second Triumvirate

• After Cassius and Brutus’ deaths + their armies defeated, Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate

• All three became consuls and divided Roman territory among themselves

• The arrangement ultimately ended poorly

The Rise of Octavian

• By 30 BC, Octavian had defeated Lepidus and Antony after the Second Triumvirate collapsed

• The Senate existed but held almost no power

• In 27 BC, Octavian was renamed Augustus (“Illustrious One”), senate declared he was divine, and appeared on coins

• Full title: Imperator Augustus Caesar

The Roman Empire

• End of the Republic marked the start of the Roman Empire and Pax Romana (Roman Peace)

• Period of relative peace after decades of civil wars

• Augustus died in 14 AD; succeeded by step-son Tiberius

• Senate under an Emperor continued until the Empire’s collapse in 476 AD