Development of early relationships

Define attachment

• A long enduring emotionally meaningful tie to a particular individual (Schaffer)

• Object of child’s attachment usually reciprocates emotions

Characteristics of attachment in infancy

• Selective, attachment behaviour focusing on specific individuals

• Proximity seeking, effort to remain close to the object of attachment

• Comforting, proximity provides comfort and security

• Separation distress, results when proximity cannot be achieved

Theory of attachment (Bowlby, 1960-1980)

• An infant is genetically predisposed to develop attachment to their caregiver

• The mother is genetically predisposed to respond appropriately to the infants attachment behaviour

What 2 levels does theory of attachment function on

• Biological function, motivation to be near the parent increases the likelihood of receiving care and therefore increases survival

• Psychological function, provides a feeling of security

What are the 4 stages of attachment

• Pre attachment, birth to 2 months

• Attachment in the making, 2-7 months

• Clear cut attachment, 7-24 months

• Goal corrected partnership, > 24 months

Features of pre attachment

• (Birth - 2 months)

• Predisposed behaviour

• Grasping, crying, smiling,eye contact

• Brings adults into contact with the infant and maintains the contact

Features of attachment in the making

• (2-7 months)

• Child responds differently to their caregiver vs a stranger

• Babbles and laughs more readily with their caregiver

• More easily comforted by their caregiver

• Can recognise familiar people but accepts care from anyone

Features of clear cut attachment

• (7-24 months)

• A major change, proximity seeking, wary of strangers, no longer accept care from unfamiliar people

• Depends on person permanence

What is person permanence

• People continue to exist when out of sight therefore recognition of familiar people is not sufficient

• Requires ability to recall representation of people from memory

Features of goal corrected partnership

• 24 months onwards

• Child’s improving representation abilities the understanding of factors to influence temporary absence of a caregiver

• Negotiation, eg a child asks the parent to play before leaving, this is to cope with the absence better

What is the maternal deprivation hypothesis

• The infant and young child should experience an intimate relationship with their mother

• Causes social and cognitive defects

Maternal deprivation hypothesis (Goldfarb, 1947)

• Compared 30 children separated from mother before 9 months

• 15 children were fostered early, before 9 months and 15 institutionalised then fostered at 3.5 years

• Assessed at ages 10-14

• Institutionalised children were shown to have deficits in intelligence, speech, reading and maths

• They were also restless, had low concentration, fearful and craved adult attention

Maternal deprivation hypothesis (Harlow, 1958, 1969)

• Monkeys separated from their mothers

• Raised in isolation for either 3, 6 or 12 months

• They were released from isolation and placed with other monkeys

• All groups showed social maladjustment, aggression and withdrawal

• Results shown if they were isolation for 3 months or less they can recover

• But more than 3 months leads to irreversible effects

Criticism of the maternal deprivation hypothesis

• Confounding factors, MD resulting from institutionalism/ separation in childhood may result as well as hostility in the home

• Deficits can be reversed, effects of MD are not irreversible

• Deficits do not always occur, many children are maternally deprived eg death of a parent but do not later exhibit cog deficits or social maladjustment

Bowlby’s monotropism theory?

• Infants are genetically predisposed to form an attachment to one person

• Infants are incapable of forming attachment to several people

• All later attachments are minor compared to the primary one

What was bowlbys theory on the critical period of attachment

• Proposed that attachment relationships cannot be formed after 2.5 years

• If attachments are prevented before age 2.5, the child will inevitably develop an “affectionless character”

Is there evidence for a critical period?

• (Tizard 1977)

• Studied children adopted after 2.5 years, some as old as 7

• Children were institutionalised a few weeks after birth

• Cared for by a large group, this prevented attachment formation

• The ability to form relationships was assessed at 8 and 16

• Most relationships were good but a strong emotional bond was developed with foster parents

• No evidence of the critical period or “affectionless character”

Evaluation of the theory of attachment, Bowlby

• A comprehensive biologically motivated theory

• Prompted research into early relationships

• Improved understanding of children’s emotional needs

• Led to improvements in institutional care

• However several components of the theory are not supported by evidence

• Mistaken beliefs had adverse effects on mothers and caregivers

What can be used to measure attachment

• Strange situation test, (SST)

• Developed by Ainsworth et al, 1978

• Different tests conducted, (a standardised test)

What did studies of SST show? (Strange situation test)

• Identified 4 major types of attachment behaviour

• Secure attachment

• 3 kinds of insecure attachment, avoidant, resistant and disorganised

Secure attachment style (Type B)

• Actively maintain proximity to mother

• Distress due to mothers absence (not due to being left alone in general)

• Secure children are most common and represent healthy psychological development

Insecure avoidant attachment style (Type A)

• In social settings child may avoid proximity or interaction with mother

• May ignore mother

• No distress during separation or due to being left alone

Insecure resistant attachment style (Type C)

• Clings to mother rather than exploring

• A lot of distress caused by separation from mother

• Mix of seeking contact and resistance in social settings

Insecure disorganised attachment style (Type D)

• Disorientated and disorganised behaviour

• No clear pattern

• No coherent system for coping with separation/reunion

• Parent mental illness, child abuse

Criticisms of SST

• Artificial situations, unfamiliar surroundings and caregiver is aware of being observed

• Confounding psychosocial factors, psychological factors other than attachment type, eg susceptibility to stress in general

• Choice of attachment figure, danger in classifying children based on attachment to the caregiver in the study

• Is it relevant to all cultures??

Cross cultural criticism in SST

• (Schaffer 1996)

• % of attachment type in GB was 75% secure whereas 68% in Japan

• Similarly, in GB 22% avoidant and 5% in Japan

Attachment beyond infancy/ early childhood

• Concept of attachment expanded from infancy to lifespan

• As the child matures, attachment becomes more sophisticated

• Attachment depends more on abstract concepts eg trust

What is Bowlbys internal working model

• Suggested individuals form internal working models of attachment relationships

• Represents memories and feelings about attachment figures

• Provides expectations about relationships

• Guides behaviour towards attachment figure

Long term implications of attachment

• Implications of non secure attachment,

• Insecurely attached infants at 5 months had poorer social skills and adjustment, hostile and impulsive (Erickson et al, 1985)

• Whereas securely attached children demonstrated reactions that were less negative to periods of high family stress in middle childhood (Pianta, Egeland and Sroufe, 1990)