Anatomy and Physiology Exam 1 Study Guide

Anatomy/Morphology

Study of the structure of the human body.

Physiology

Study of the body function.

Microscopic Anatomy

Examines structures that cannot be viewed by the unaided eye. Ex. Cells, Organelle, tissue.

Gross Anatomy (Macroscopic anatomy)

Investigates the structure and relationships of large body parts that are visible to the unaided eye. Ex. Heart, lung, stomach.

Comparative Anatomy

Examines the similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species.

Developmental Anatomy

Investigates the changes in structure within an individual from conception through maturity.

Embryology

Specifically studies developmental changes occurring prior to birth.

Regional Anatomy

Examines all the structures in a particular region of the body as one complete unit. Ex. The skin, connective tissue and fat, bones, muscles, nerves, and blood vessels of the neck.

Surface Anatomy

Examines both superficial anatomic markings and internal body structures as they relate to the skin covering them.

Systemic Anatomy

The study of external body features and how they relate to deeper structures.

Pathologic Anatomy / Pathology

Examines all anatomic changes resulting from disease.

Radiographic Anatomy

Studies the relationships among internal structures that may be visualized by specific medical imaging procedures, ex. Ultrasound, MRI.

Hierarchy of Complexity

Sequence the order (simplest to most complex): Atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.

Atoms

Examples include Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen.

Molecule

Examples include Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and Nucleic acids.

Organelle

Examples include SoftER, Hard ER, Nucleus.

Cell

Examples include Neuron, Red blood cells, Muscle cell.

Tissue

Examples include connective, muscle, nervous, and Epithelial.

Organ

Examples include Heart, Brain, Lungs.

Organ system

Examples include respiratory system, digestive system, Circulatory system.

Organism

Human.

Smallest living unit

Cell.

Anatomical Position

Person stands erect with toes and eyes forward, palm facing forward with thumbs pointed away from the body.

Axial Region

Includes Head, neck, trunk.

Appendicular Region

Includes Appendages.

Measurements in anatomy

Meter (M), MicroMeter (uM), Liter (L), Milliliter (mL), Kilogram (kg).

Medial

Center of body.

Lateral

Away from the middle line of your body.

Intermediate

In between. Ex. The heart is intermediate to the lungs.

Anterior/Ventral

In the front.

Posterior/Dorsal

In the back.

Superior

Towards the top of the body.

Inferior

Towards the bottom of the body.

Superficial/External

Towards the body surface.

Deep/Internal

Away from the body surface.

Proximal

Means you're closer to the attachment.

Distal

Means you're farther from the attachment.

Contralateral

On opposite sides

Ipsilateral

On the same side

Frontal/Coronal Plane

Divides body into anterior and posterior parts

Transverse/Horizontal Plane

Divides body into superior and inferior

Oblique Plane

Divides body at an angle

Sagittal Plane

Divides body into right and left parts

Midsagittal/Median Plane

Sagittal plane that runs along midline

Parasagittal Plane

Sagittal planes offset from midline

Cranial Cavity

Contains the brain

Vertebral/Spinal Cavity

Contains the spinal cord

Visceral Organs

Includes lungs, heart, stomach, etc.

Thoracic Cavity

Divided into three parts (2 lateral parts, surrounded by pleural cavity)

Pleura

Membrane surrounding the lungs

Mediastinum

Contains the heart, thymus, parts of the esophagus and trachea, plus major vessels, nerves, and lymph nodes

Abdominal Cavity

Contains liver, stomach, kidneys, and other organs

Pelvic Cavity

Contains urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and rectum

Viscera

Covers visceral organs

Parietal Serosa

Outer wall of cavity

Visceral Serosa

Covers visceral organs

Serous Fluid

Produced by both layers of serous membranes, functions to reduce friction

X-ray

Electromagnetic waves of very short length, best for visualizing bones and abnormally dense structures

CT (Computed Tomography) Scan

Takes successive X-rays around a person's full circumference

Angiography

Contrast medium highlights vessel structure

Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)

Image taken before and after contrast medium injection; computer subtracts before from after to identify blockage of arteries to heart wall and brain

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Forms images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected into the body

Sonography (Ultrasound Imaging)

Body probed with pulses of high-frequency sound waves that echo off body's tissues

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Produces high-quality images of soft tissues, distinguishes body tissues based on relative water content

Epithelial Tissue

Covers body surface or lines a body cavity

Functions of Epithelial Tissue

1. Protection 2. Secretion 3. Absorption 4. Diffusion 5. Filtration 6. Sensory reception

Cellularity

Cells separated by minimal extracellular material

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

A network of macromolecules and minerals like collagen, enzymes, glycoproteins, and hydroxyapatite that supports surrounding cells structurally and biochemically

Basal Surface

Non-cellular supporting sheet; functions as a selective filter determining which molecules from capillaries enter epithelium

Basement membrane

Basal lamina + reticular fibers

Apical

Microvillus (s) microvilli (pl) fingerlike extensions of cell membrane maximize surface across which small particles enter or leave cells

Nutrient acquisition in epithelia

Epithelia get nutrients by diffusion; nutrients pass from blood vessels in underlying connective tissue through interstitial fluid to epithelial cells.

Innervation

Supplied by nerve fibers; nerve endings provide sensation (e.g., pain, touch) even though epithelia have no blood vessels.

Regeneration

High capacity for renewal; epithelial cells divide quickly to replace lost or damaged cells.

Simple epithelium

Epithelial tissue with 1 layer.

Stratified epithelium

Epithelial tissue with multiple layers.

Squamous cells

Cells wider than tall; functions include diffusion and filtration.

Cuboidal cells

Cells as wide as tall, like cubes; functions include secretion and absorption.

Columnar cells

Cells taller than they are wide, like columns; functions include secretion and absorption.

Tight junctions

Connections that close off intercellular space.

Desmosomes

Main junctions for binding cells together, scattered along abutting sides of adjacent cells.

Gap junctions

Passageway between 2 adjacent cells; small particles move directly between neighboring cells, functioning in intercellular communication.

Endocrine glands

Ductless glands that secrete directly into surrounding tissue fluid, producing chemical messengers called hormones.

Exocrine glands

Glands with ducts that carry secretions to epithelial surfaces, including mucus-secreting glands, salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.

Goblet cells

Unicellular exocrine glands that produce mucin; mucin + water = mucus, which protects and lubricates many internal body surfaces.

Basal lamina

Thin sheet of proteins that anchors epithelium to connective tissue, acts as a filter, and guides cell migration.

Microvilli

Extensions that increase surface area to help absorb or secrete small molecules.

Cilia

Whiplike, highly motile extensions of apical surface membrane.

ECM components

Includes basal lamina (protein layer) and small amounts of interstitial fluid.

Cutaneous membrane

Skin.

Mucous membrane

Epithelial layer on top of lamina propria (areolar CT); lines hollow organs that open to the surface of the body.

Serous membrane

Simple squamous epithelium lying on areolar connective tissue; lines closed cavities (pleural, pericardial, peritoneal) and produces serous fluids.

Muscle tissue types

Includes skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscle.

Contractile filament

Actin and myosin proteins that slide past each other to shorten (contract) the cell.

Muscle tissues that generate impulses

Cardiac muscle and smooth muscle.

Nervous Tissue

Can it generate impulses? yes

Functions of Nervous Tissue

Transmit electrical signals (can generate impulses) from sensory receptors to effectors; controls the body

Describe Edema

accumulation of tissue fluid in CT

2 Layers of Skin (order)

Epidermis, Dermis

Layer not part of skin

hypodermis