psychology u3aos2

• Explain what is meant by a ‘behaviourist’ approach to learning

Behaviourist approaches to learning emphasise the study of

observable behaviour alone to understand and explain learning,

without regard to underlying mental processes and states such as

thoughts and feelings.

Describe the key features of classical conditioning as an approach to explaining learning

Definition: Learning that occurs through the repeated

(usually) association of two (or more) different stimuli’.

Learning is only said to have had occurred when a particular

stimulus consistently produces a reflexive or involuntary

response that it did not previously produce.

Explain the three-phase process of classical conditioning (before, during and after conditioning) using key terminology

• Describe the key features of operant conditioning as an approach to explaining learning, including its voluntary nature.

the consequences that follow a behaviour determine the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated.

The (1) antecedent condition leads to a (2) behaviour/response which results in a (3) consequence

(reinforcement or punishment) thus affecting the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated again in the future. Reinforcement always increases the likelihood of behaviour being repeated whereas punishment (including response cost) always weakens a behaviour.

• Explain the three-phase process of operant conditioning

• Explain the effect of different consequences in operant conditioning on behaviour

Positive reinforcement (adding a good stimulus) and negative reinforcement (taking away a bad stimulus) strengthen a behaviour, Positive punishment (adding a bad stimulus) and negative punishment (taking away a good stimulus) weaken a behaviour

Evaluate the effectiveness of consequences with reference to timing, appropriateness and order of presentation 

Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning as approaches used to explain learning

Classical conditioning- response is involuntary, stimulus precedes the response, response occurs after the stimulus, learner is passive during conditioning

Operant conditioning- response is voluntary, stimulus occurs after response, response occurs before the stimulus, learner is active during conditioning

Explain what is meant by a ‘socio-cognitive’ approach to learning

Social-cognitive approaches propose learning takes place in a

social setting and involves various cognitive processes. This

approach to learning is closely linked to the social learning theory,

which was first proposed by psychologist *Albert Bandura.

• Describe the key features of observational learning and explain why it is considered to be a social-cognitive approach to explaining learning

Observational learning occurs by watching others and noting the positive and negative consequences of their actions before then, if motivated and able, repeating such behaviour. The indirect nature of observational learning means that it is vicarious.

what are the key processes in observational learning

Attention, Retention, Reproduction, Motivation, Reinforcement

Attention

The observer must actively watch the model when completing the

task and observe distinctive features of the observed behaviour.

retention

The observer must be able to make mental representations (step

by step) of the observed behaviour and its consequences.

Reproduction

The observer must have the (mental and physical) ability to

perform the action.

Motivation

The learner must want to perform the behaviour.

Reinforcement

The learner observes the model receiving positive reinforcement

and this increases the likelihood that the observer will repeat the

behaviour. (this is vicarious reinforcement).

• Explain what is meant by ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander ways of knowing’ and provide examples.

In Aboriginal culture, learning is relational and interconnected taking place

in the community, where family and kin learn from each other.

Additionally, learning is not broken up into separate subjects;

instead, the connections between concepts are highlighted,

creating a holistic process of learning.

• Explain how Indigenous learners are viewed as being part of a multimodal system of knowledges patterned on Country

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approaches to learning are multimodal by

nature, meaning that they use a variety of methods.

encoding

the process of recording information in a particular way for

storage. Memory may be improved by the quality/depth of encoding.

storage

keeping information in the brain so that we can use it later. We

store information in an organised way in order to make retrieval easier and

faster.

retrieval

relies on retrieval cues and refers to getting memories back from

storage in order to use them in working memory. These often tend to be

rough versions of the original memory rather than exact replicas.

role, capacity, duration of sensory memory

role- briefly stores sensory information which bombard our senses and are maintained in their original form for a very brief duration.

capacity- unlimited

duration- iconic- 0.3 seconds, echoic- 3-4 seconds

role, capacity, duration of short term memory

role-It holds information that we are consciously aware of, thus we can manipulate information enabling us to perform everyday functions such as recall a phone number of a friend or a password for internet access. stm forms our conscious awareness

capacity- 5-9 pieces of information

duration- 12-30 seconds CAN BE EXTENDED VIA MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL

role, capacity, duration of long term memory

role- relatively permanent storage place for info

capacity- almost infinite

duration- almost infinite

Explain how sensory memory, short-term and long-term memory interact when processing sensory information

• New information will pass from Sensory memory to STM if we pay

attention to it.

• This information will be stored in LTM if we rehearse it in ways that

give it meaning.

• Information can then be passed back from LTM to STM when we need

to plan, think, organise, etc.

explicit memory

“knowing that…”

semantic and episodic memory

semantic memory- memory of facts and general knowledge

episodic memory- memory of episodes and events in our lives

implicit memory

“knowing how to…”

emotional memories, classically conditioned memories and procedural memories

hippocampus role in memory

essential for the formation and consolidation of explicit memories, involved in storing and retrieving these memories from the relevant parts of the brain.

Declarative memories (facts and events) are NOT stored in the hippocampus, they are transferred to relevant parts of the brain for more permanent storage.

Amygdala role in memory

primarily involved in encoding the

emotional component of memories.

• This brain structure is responsible for encoding the

emotional components of classically conditioned

and explicit memories.

• It is involved in strengthening the encoding of

emotional components of memories, contributing to

them being encoded in greater detail.

role of the neocortex

stores explicit memories, once episodic and semantic memories are converted into a usable form in the hippocampus, they are stored in the neocortex for later use

role of basal ganglia

involved in encoding and storing procedural memories via its connection with the cerebellum.

stores classically conditioned memories

role of cerebellum

responsible for encoding and storing implicit procedural memories, involved in

balance, coordination, movement and motor skills.

BALLERINA

episodic memory and example

Memories of episodes and events in our lives

E.g., Knowing the details of your last holiday, your first day at UHS

semantic memory and example

memories of facts or general knowldege, eg. being able to list species of birds

define autobiographical memory and possible imagined futures

autobiographical memory- personally lived experiences, closely associated with episodic memory, stored in long term memory and retrieved when you speak or think about them

possible imagined futures- hypothetical experiences and situations that an individual can conceptualise in their mind eg. imagining what your going to do tomorrow

the role of episodic and semantic memories in constructing possible imagined futures

constructing possible imagined futures requires use of the frontal and temporal lobes,

Semantic memory is involved in the construction of possible imagined futures as

individuals must be able to envision possible scenarios that are consistent and fit in

with what they already know about the world.

• Episodic memory is also involved by allowing individuals to construct a possible

imagined future that is subjective and includes more richly detailed elements, such

as the people involved or emotional reactions.

alzheimers

a neurodegenerative brain disease linked to abnormal

changes in brain tissue which leads to increasingly

severe deterioration of cognitive abilities, personal skills

and behaviour, eventually causing death.

specifically linked to degeneration of the hippocampus

amyloid plaques

a toxic protein that forms on axon terminals and disrupts communication between neurons.

neurofibrillary tangles

an abnormal build- up of protein inside neurons which are also associated with the death of neurons.

acetylcholine

the primary neurotransmitter impacted by alzheimers. a neurotransmitter involved in

memory, thus reduced levels of acetylcholine interferes with the synaptic connections between neurons.

brain atrophy

the brain shrinking in size, specifically in late stages of alzheimers

symptoms of alzheimers, in order

1. Impaired recent episodic memories then impaired semantic memories

2. Short-term memory difficulties, personality changes and difficulty with decision making,

judgement and thinking logically

3. Frequently confused or disoriented and difficulty with language and communication

4. Difficulty retrieving procedural memory and completing basic tasks,

e.g., making a cup of tea

5. Impaired autonomic NS functioning

aphantasia

a condition in which people are unable to visualise detailed and vivid episodic memories due to their inability to generate mental imagery. it is difficult for people with aphantasia to retrieve personally lived experiences and construct possible imagined futures.

mnemonic

techniques used to aid the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

how does a mnemonic aid in memory

by organising and linking new information to fit in with existing information in long-term memory

loci

a mnemonic device involving visualising items in specific, well known locations to aid memory

acronym

a mnemonic device in which the first letters of items form a pronounceable word to aid memory. eg. BODMAS

acrostic

a mnemonic device in which the first letters of items create a phrase, rhyme, or poem to aid memory. eg. every good boy deserves fruit

sung narratives

stories that share important information through the use of singing, harmony, rhythm and sometimes dance.