GENBIO 2 - MOD 5-8

Asexual

process by which genetically identical offspring are produced from one parent.

Binary Fission (Splitting)

Separation of the body into two new bodies. An organism duplicates its genetic material, or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), and then divides into two parts (cytokinesis), with each new organism receiving one copy of DNA)

Budding

A new individual develops from some generative anatomical point of the parent

Fragmentation

Occurs when the parent organism breaks into fragments or pieces and each fragment develops into a new individual

REPRODUCTION

• The process by which new individuals of a species are produced and the genetic material is passed from generation to generation.

Sporulation

Bacteria, algae, fungi, ferns and mosses develop unicellular pores which detach parent and develop into new individuals.

Cloning

Mitotic division that results in a development of a clone with exact genetic make up.

Parthenogenesis

A natural form of asexual reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization by sperm.

Sexual reproduction

is the process involving the fusion of two nuclei to form a zygote and the production of genetically dissimilar offspring

Vegetative Reproduction

refers to plant organs consisting of the roots, stem (trunk, branches, twigs) and leaves.

Natural Vegetative Reproduction

The natural method of vegetative propagation utilizes plant organs other than the seed and spore which, even without the involvement of man, serve as plants' means of maintaining their species. These plant organs include the: bulbs, cloves, corms, tubers and tuberous roots, rhizomes, runners or stolons.

Artificial Vegetative Reproduction

Artificial methods of asexual reproduction are frequently used to give rise to new and sometimes novel, plants.

Grafting

an artificial method of asexual reproduction used to produce plants combining favorable stem and root characteristics. The stem of the plant to be grafted is known as the scion. The root is called the stock.

Cutting

a portion of the stem containing nodes and internodes is placed in moist soil and allowed to root. In some species, stems can start producing a root even when placed only in water

Layering or Runner

A method in which a stem attached to the plant is bent and covered with soil. Young stems that can be bent easily without any injury are the preferred plant for this method.

Pedicel/stalk

is a flower stalk that holds and supports the flower.

Receptacle

is the swollen end of the pedicel. It is where the other structure is attached

Sepals

are small, green leaf like structures. All the ____ together form the calyx. It encloses and protects the inner parts of the flower when it is still a bud

Petals

are usually larger than the sepals. They are brightly colored to attract insects for All the petals together form the corolla

Stamen

is the male reproductive parts of a flower. Each _______ is made up of an anther that produces the pollen grain and the filament that supports the anther

Carpel

or the pistil is the female reproductive part of a flower. Each _____is made up of an ovary contains one or more ovules, style, attached at the top end of an ovary and stigma is a sticky structure at the tip of the style that receives pollen grains

Pollination

the transfer of pollen from a male reproductive structure (anther) to a female reproductive structure (stigma) by a vector such as wind or insects

Self Pollination

It occurs when pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of the same flower or a different flower on the same plants

Cross Pollination

It occurs when pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of different plants.

Gametogenesis

is the production of sperm (spermatogenesis) and eggs (oogenesis), takes place through the process of meiosis

Spermatogenesis

process in which spermatozoa are produced from spermatogonial stem cells by way of mitosis and meiosis

Oogenesis

diploid oogonium go through mitosis until one develops into a primary oocyte, which will begin the first meiotic division, but then arrest; it will finish this division as it develops in the follicle, giving rise to a haploid secondary oocyte and a smaller polar body

Fertilization

is the formation of a diploid zygote from a haploid egg and sperm

Cleavage

a period of rapid cell division without growth

Gastrulation

formation of three germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. Each will give rise to specific tissues and organs

Organogenesis

various regions of the germ layers develop into rudimentary organs (e.g. notocord)

Sexual reproduction

is the process by which organisms produce offspring by making germ cells called gametes

Testicles (testes)

• These are oval organs about the size of large olives that lie in the scrotum, secured at either end by a structure called the spermatic cord.

• They are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for generating sperm.

Epididymis

It is a long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle

Vas deferens

It transports mature sperm to the urethra, the tube that carries urine or sperm to outside of the body)

Ejaculatory ducts

These are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles

Seminal vesicles

These are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the base of the bladder

Prostate gland

It is a walnut-sized structure that is located below the urinary bladder in front of the rectum

Bulbourethral glands

Also called Cowper's glands, these are pea-sized structures located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland.

Urethra

the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of the body. In males, it has the additional function of ejaculating semen.

Scrotum

This is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind and below the penis

Penis

This is the male organ used in sexual intercourse.

Labia majora

It enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs. It is relatively large and fleshy, and are comparable to the scrotum in males

Labia minora

Can be very small or up to 2 inches wide. They lie just inside the labia majora, and surround the openings to the vagina (the canal that joins the lower part of the uterus to the outside of the body) and urethra

Bartholin's glands

These glands are located beside the vaginal opening and produce a fluid (mucus) secretion

Clitoris

The two labia minora meet at the _________ , a small, sensitive protrusion that is comparable to the penis in males

Vagina

It is a canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body. It also is known as the birth canal

Uterus (womb)

It is a hollow, pear-shaped organ that is the home to a developing fetus

Ovaries

These are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of the uterus. The ovaries produce eggs and hormones

Fallopian tubes

These are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the uterus and serve as tunnels for the ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus. Conception, the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, normally occurs in the _________

Ovulation

suppressing methods- Oral contraceptives

Barrier methods

Physical (Condom, Diaphragm, Cervical cap)

Chemical methods

Spermicidal jelly and foam

Surgical methods

Vasectomy and Tubal ligation

Implantation-suppressing methods

IUD and Morning-after pill

Autotrophic nutrition

is observed when an organism is able to synthesize organic materials from inorganic raw

materials

autotrophs

s an organism that can produce its own food using light, water, carbon dioxide, or other chemicals.

Chemosynthesis

- is the process of synthesizing organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water using energy

supplied by chemical processes involving oxidation of inorganic substances such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia

and iron

Chemoautotrophs

are organisms that can undero chemosysthesis

Photosynthesis

is the synthesis of organic compounds (sugar) from carbon dioxide and water using light as

source of energy

Photoautotrophs

are organisms that can undergo photosynthesis

Heterotrophic Nutrition

is observed when organisms obtain organic materials from various sources because they cannot synthesize them.

Saprophytic/ Saprotrophic nutrition

is the process of obtaining nutritional requirements from dead and

decaying organic matter

saprophytes/saprotrophs/ saprobionts

Organisms that obtain nutrients by decomposing dead and decaying organic matter. Organisms that exhibit this are known as

Parasitic nutrition

is living on another organism called host and obtaining food from them

parasites

are harmful to the hosts to the extent of death of the host

Endoparasites

live inside the host. Examples are: tapeworms, Ascaris, potato fungus

Exoparasites

- live on the surface of the host. Examples are: ticks, lice, flea, aphids

Obligate parasites

- are unable to survive and reproduce in the absence of a host

Facultative parasites-

can live independently in the absence of a host but can become parasitic if

opportunity arises. An example is the bootlace fungus (Armillaria mellea) that lives saprotrophically on rotting tree stump

Holozoic nutrition

is the ingestion and digestion of food in the alimentary canal before absorption to

the cells through the blood transportsystem

Herbivores

- eat plants. Examples are: goats, cows and rabbits.

b. Carnivores

- eat animals. Examples are: tigers, lions, and snakes.,

Omnivores

-eat both plants and animals. Example: humans

Detritivores-

feed on detritus (particulate organic materials from dead organisms). Examples are:

earthworms and woodlice.

Insectivorous plants

- trap insects and digest them. Examples are: pitcher plant (Nepenthes),and Venus fly trap (Dionaea muscipula)

Microphagous feeder

-take in very small particles. Examples are: Amoeba and

Paramecium, Daphnia and gastropods

Liquid feeders-

take in liquid food or food with very soft tissues. Examples are: aphids, bees, flies,

mosquitoes

Macrophagous feeder

- take in relatively large particles. Examples are: fish, birds, reptiles and mammals.

Ingestion

taking in of food.

Digestion

-breaking down of food

Mechanical digestion

occurs when food is cut, crushed, chewed and ground to fine pieces through

physical means such as using the teeth and the churning of the stomach

Chemical digestion

occurs when food is broken down into smaller molecules that can be

absorbed by the cells

Carbohydrases

break down carbohydrates into monosaccharides.

Lipases

break down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.

Proteases

act on proteins and break them into amino acids.

Absorption

s the process by which digested simple molecules from food are transported from the GI tract to the blood and finally distributed to the different cells in the body

Assimilation

- is the process of combining the simple products of digestion or nutrients to make

complex compounds.

Egestion-

is the removal of undigested food (left after completion of absorption). When undigested food

passes through the colon, much water is reabsorbed and the undigested food becomes compact

Cellular respiration

is the aerobic breakdown of glucose in the mitochondria to make ATP.  During cellular respiration, oxygen is used up in cells and carbon dioxide is given out

Respiratory systems

are consist of organs in animals that exchange gases with the environment

gas exchange

organisms must take in oxygen from the surrounding and release carbon dioxide from its body

Gas exchange through specialized structures

Larger animals need structures specialized for gas exchange

skin

Most amphibians and many other animals respire across their skin. Amphibians also exchange gases via lungs

papulae

have protruding __________, which provide an increased respiratory surface area

Spiracle or tracheal system

It consists of systems of tubes called trachea and tracheoles which transport air from spiracles to and from cells

gills

provide a very large respiratory surface area and countercurrent exchange. They are highly folded outgrowths that contain blood vessels and covered with a thin epithelial layer

lungs

The alveoli in mammalian lungs provide a large respiratory surface area but do not permit countercurrent exchange

Human Respiratory System

Tubular system consisting of the nasal passage, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles

lungs

consisting of millions of sac-like spherical alveoli to provide a very large surface area for efficient gaseous exchange.