Archaeology

Archaeology

The study of human behavior in the past, offering a long-term perspective on human activities across different periods.

Archaeological record

The physical evidence of past human activities including artifacts, features, and sites preserved in the ground.

Artifact

Any movable object used, modified, or manufactured by humans, such as tools, beads, and pottery.

Feature

A non-portable artifact or part of a site created by human activity.

Antiquarianism

The study of old and rare objects, including their history, artifacts, and monuments.

Deep time

The understanding that Earth's age is measured in millions and billions of years, older than recorded history.

Chronology/Culture history

The goal of archaeology that establishes the timeline of past human activities.

Past lifeways/Cultures

A goal of archaeology that reconstructs the daily lives and structures of past societies based on material remains.

Culture Process/Theory

This examines how and why cultures change over time, using scientific methods to understand human adaptation.

Culture as Adaptation

The concept that culture evolves as a means for humans to adapt to their environments.

Epistemology

The study of knowledge, including its nature, sources, and how humans understand the world.

Scientific method

A structured process of inquiry that involves observation, experimentation, and evidence-based reasoning.

Hypothesis

A testable and falsifiable statement about a phenomenon based on prior knowledge.

Theory

A well-supported explanation of phenomena that is consistently tested through scientific research.

Empirical

Based on observation and measurable evidence rather than personal beliefs.

Pseudoscience

Claims that appear scientific but lack empirical evidence and proper methodology.

Fieldwork

The practice of gathering archaeological data through excavation, surveys, or analysis.

Remote sensing

Non-invasive methods used to detect and map archaeological features beneath the surface.

Context

The position and association of artifacts and features within an archaeological site.

Stratigraphy

The study of soil layers and their sequence for relative dating and site formation processes.

Provenience

The precise three-dimensional location of an artifact or feature within a site.

Geoarchaeology

The study of geological processes in relation to archaeological sites to understand past human-environment interactions.

Law of superposition

A principle indicating that in undisturbed layers, the oldest layers are at the bottom.

Relative dating

Determining the age of an object or feature in relation to others without providing a specific numerical age.

Dendrochronology

A dating method that uses tree rings to determine the exact year of tree growth.

Radiocarbon dating

An absolute dating method that measures the decay of carbon-14 in organic materials.

Systematic

Follows a structured and organized method to collect and analyze data.

Testable

Hypotheses and claims must be verifiable through experimentation and observation.

Replicable

Results must be repeatable by other researchers under similar conditions.

Self-Correcting

Open to revision and refinement as new evidence emerges.

Objective

Strives to minimize bias and personal influence in the interpretation of data.

Pseudoscience Characteristics

Lacks peer review, relies on anecdotal evidence, is not testable or replicable, resists change despite contrary evidence, and often uses vague or exaggerated claims.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek, interpret, and remember information that supports preexisting beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Belief Systems

Personal beliefs or agendas that often influence interpretations and conclusions in the absence of objective evidence.

Fraud in Research

Deliberate deception in research, motivated by ideological or financial interests, rather than adherence to evidence-based methodologies.

Archaeological Data

Any material evidence collected during excavations, surveys, or analysis, including artifacts, features, and site contexts.

Field Schools

Training programs where students and researchers gain hands-on experience in archaeological excavation, surveying, and documentation techniques.

Archaeological Site

A location where past human activity is preserved and studied, containing artifacts, features, and other cultural materials.

Lithic Artifacts

Stone tools and debris created through flintknapping or other stone-working techniques, used by past societies for various purposes.

Ceramic Artifacts

Objects made from fired clay, such as pottery, figurines, and tiles, which provide insight into past cultures, trade, and daily life.

Archaeological Survey

A systematic examination of an area to identify and evaluate the presence of archaeological sites and materials.

Settlement Pattern/Seasonal Round

The spatial distribution of human habitation and resource use over time, influenced by environmental and seasonal factors.

Subsurface Testing

Techniques like shovel test pits, augering, or coring used to investigate buried archaeological deposits without extensive excavation.

Levels

Artificial or natural layers of excavation used to systematically remove soil and record changes in stratigraphy and artifact distribution.

Grid system

A mapped framework of squares, typically in meters, used to organize excavation areas and precisely record artifact locations.

Datum

A fixed reference point at a site used for measuring elevations and spatial coordinates to ensure accurate mapping.

Cataloging

The process of systematically recording, labeling, and storing artifacts and data from an excavation for future study and analysis.

Folsom Discovery

The discovery of Folsom points in association with extinct bison bones in Folsom, New Mexico (1926), providing evidence for prehistoric human occupation in North America during the Ice Age.

Preservation

The process by which materials (bones, tools, organic remains) are preserved in the archaeological record, influenced by environmental factors like temperature, moisture, and burial conditions.

Preservation Factors

Conditions affecting the preservation of archaeological materials, including climate, soil composition, burial environment, and natural events.

Environmental Preservation Examples

Examples include dry desert conditions preserving organic materials, or waterlogged environments preserving wood and plant fibers.

Sediments

Particles of rock and organic material transported by natural forces that accumulate in layers over time and can contain artifacts and fossils.

Alluvial Sediments

Sediments deposited by rivers or streams, often rich in artifacts and providing valuable chronological information about human activity.

Colluvial Sediments

Sediments accumulating at the base of slopes due to gravity, often containing materials from higher elevations and potentially displacing artifacts.

Eolian Sediments

Wind-deposited sediments, such as sand dunes or loess, which can preserve archaeological materials by encasing them in a stable, dry environment.

Dating

The process of determining the age of artifacts, features, or sites, typically through relative or absolute methods.

Laetoli Footprints

Ancient hominin footprints preserved in volcanic ash in Laetoli, Tanzania (about 3.6 million years old), providing evidence of early human-like bipedalism.

Absolute Dating

Methods that provide a specific date or date range for an object or site, often using scientific techniques like radiocarbon dating.

Index Fossils/Time Markers

Fossils that are widespread, short-lived, and characteristic of a specific period, used to help correlate the age of different sites.

Seriation

A relative dating technique that arranges artifacts or features in a sequence based on changes in style or frequency over time.

Argon Dating

A form of absolute dating based on measuring the ratio of argon isotopes in volcanic rock or ash, often used to date sites older than those suitable for radiocarbon dating.

Trapped Charge Dating

Techniques like thermoluminescence or optically stimulated luminescence, which measure trapped electrons in minerals to determine when they were last exposed to light or heat.

Archaeomagnetic Dating

A dating method based on the alignment of magnetic minerals in fired materials (like hearths), which record the Earth's magnetic field at the time of heating.