CLEP Textbook Part 4

divided government

a condition in which one or more houses of the legislature is controlled by the party in opposition to the executive.

majoritarian voting

a type of election in which the winning candidate must receive at least 50 percent of the votes, even if a run-off election is required: ensures that the elected candidate has majority support among voters.

party organization

the formal structure of the political party and the active members responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates.

party-in-government

party identifiers who have been elected to office and are responsible for fulfilling the party’s promises.

party-in-the-electorate

members of the voting public who consider themselves part of a political party or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other.

plurality voting

the election rule by which the candidate with the most votes wins, regardless of vote share: a candidate can win even without a majority (over 50%) because they simply need more votes than any other candidate.

political machine

an organization that secures votes for a party’s candidates or supports the party in other ways, usually in exchange for political favors such as a job in government.

precinct

the lowest level of party organization, usually organized around neighborhoods: takes on the primary responsibility for voter registration and mobilization.

proportional representation

a party-based election rule in which the number of seats a party receives is a function of the share of votes it receives in an election: voters select the party of their choice rather than an individual candidate.

reapportionment

the reallocation of House seats between the states to account for population changes.

sorting

the process in which voters change party allegiances in response to shifts in party position: leads to a realignment of voter demographics and party support.

party identifiers

individuals and everyday citizens who represent themselves in public as being part of a party: do not officially work for the party like members of party organizations.

association

groups of companies or institutions that organize around a common set of concerns, often within a given industry or trade: promote collaboration, networking, and advocacy for their interests .

astroturf movement

a political movement that resembles a grassroots movement but is often supported or facilitated by wealthy interests or elites: creates the illusion of widespread public support.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)

Supreme Court cases that granted corporations and unions the right to spend unlimited amounts of money on elections under the first amendment.

collective good

a good such as public safety or clean air, often produced by government, that is generally available to the population as a whole.

contract lobbyist

a lobbyist who works for contract lobbying firm that represents clients before government: hired to influence legislation on behalf of specific interests and organizations.

disturbance theory

theory that an external event can lead to interest group mobilization: economic crises or social movements, can prompt interest groups to emerge or become more active in advocating for their goals.

elite critique

the proposition that wealthy and elite interest are advantaged over those without resources: political process disproportionately favors elites, leading to unequal representation and influence in policymaking.

fragmentation

the result when a large interest group develops diverging needs: different segments pursue distinct agendas.

free rider problem

situation that occurs when some individuals receive benefits without helping to bear the cost: leads to underfunding of public goods because individuals rely on others to contribute.

grassroots movement

political movement that often begins from the bottom up, inspired by average citizens concerned about a given issue: mobilize community support and promote change through local organizing and activism.

in-house lobbyist

an employee or executive within an organization who works as a lobbyist on behalf of the organization.

inside lobbying

the act of contacting and taking the organization’s message directly to lawmakers in an attempt to influence policy: advocacy through personal meetings, providing information, and building relationships with legislators.

iron triangle

tree-way relationship among congressional committees, interest groups, and the bureaucracy: committees provide funding and political support, interest groups offer electoral support and information, while bureaucratic agencies implement policies and regulations.

issue network

a group of interest groups and people who work together to support a particular issue or policy.

legislative liaison

a person employed by a governmental entity such as a local government, executive department, or university to represent the organization before the legislature.

lobbyist

a person who represents an organization before government in an attempt to influence policy.

the bureaucracy

the administrative system governing any large institution, particularly in government, responsible for implementing policies and regulations.

membership organization

an interest group that usually consists of dues-paying members who organize around a particular cause or issue.

neopluralist

a person who suggests that all groups’ access and influence depend on the political environment.

outside lobbying

the act of lobbying indirectly by taking the organization’s message to the public, often through the use of the media or issue press releases, in hopes that the public will then put pressure on lawmakers.

pluralist

a person who believes many groups healthily compete for access to decision-makers: multiple groups exist, compete, and influence governance, ensuring diverse representation in the decision-making process.

public interest group

an interest group that seeks a public good, which is something that accrues to all.

purposive incentives

benefits to overcome collective action problems that appeal to people’s support of the issue or cause: motivate individuals through ethical or moral beliefs about the importance of the issue.

revolving door laws

laws that require a cooling-off period before government officials can register to lobby after leaving office: aim to prevent conflicts of interest and ensure ethical standards in lobbying practices.

soft money

money that interests can spend on behalf of candidates without being restricted by federal law.

solidary incentives

benefits based on the concept that people like to associate with those who are similar to them.

collective action problems

situations where individuals' self-interest conflicts with the collective interest, leading to challenges in collaboration and cooperation among a group.

political action committees (PACs)

organization created to raise money for political campaigns and spend money to influence policy and politics.

super PACs

organizations that can fundraise and spend as they please to support or attack a candidate but not contribute directly to a candidate or strategize with a candidate’s campaign, operate independently of the campaign.

selecting lawmakers

interest groups and lobbyist decide which lawmakers to lobby by focusing on a lawmaker’s committee assignment, ideological alignment, leadership position, constituency relevance, and past voting behavior.