set of facts and relationships between facts that can explain and predict related phenomena
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Hypothesis
proposed explanation for a situation usually under the form 'if A happens, then B will be the result' ( type of inference/educated guess based on prior evidence and logical possibilities)
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surveys
a descriptive method in which participants are asked the same questions
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replication
repeating an experiment and producing the same results
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case study
in-depth analysis of the behaviour of one person or a small number of people
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double blind procedure
research in which neither the observer nor the subjects know which subjects received which treatment
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normal distribution
bell-shaped curve of scores with a large number in the middle and very few on the high and low ends
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naturalistic observation
research method based on the careful recording of behaviour in normal settings
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dependent variable
element of the experiment that measures any effect of the manipulation
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experiment
studies in which the investigator manipulates at least one variable while measuring at least one other variable
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correlational research
non experimental study that quantifies the degree to which events, measures or variables are associated
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reliability
stability of test scores over time
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descriptive statistics
mathematical summaries of results such as measures of the average and amount of variation
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inferential statistics
mathematical method for extending experimental conclusions from samples to larger populations
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control group
subjects in an experimental study who do not receive the treatment being investigated
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correlational coefficient
statistical index ranging from -1.00 to +1.00 that indicated how strongly a pair of variables are associated
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placebo effect
change in symptoms due to a participant's expectation that a drug or treatment will do something
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placebo
inactive substance or treatment that cannot be distinguished from a real active substance or treatment
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sample
subset of a population being studied
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independent variable
experimental variable controlled and manipulated by the experimenter, "if A happens part of a hypothesis
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experimental group
group of participants who are exposed to the independent variable
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random assignment
procedure in which participants have an equal chance of being placed in any group in an experiment
* keeps internal validity of the experiment
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confounding variables
variable that is irrelevant to the hypothesis being tested but can alter the researchers conclusions
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meta-analysis
statistical analysis of many previous experiments on a single topic
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publication bias
possibility that published studies are not representative of all work done on a particular phenomenon
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cross-sectional study
experiment designed for assessing age-related changes in which data are obtained simultaneously from people differing ages
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longitudinal study
assesses age-related changes in which data are obtained from the same individuals over a long period of time
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validity
quality of a measure that leads to correct conclusions (the measure that evaluates the concept it was designed to do)
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mean
numerical average of a set of scores
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median
halfway mark in a data set with half of the scores above it and half of the scores below it
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mode
most frequently occurring score in a data set
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standard deviation
measure of how tightly clustered around the mean a group of scores is
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statistical significance
standard for deciding whether an observed result is because of chance
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Confirmation bias
the tendency to notice and remember instances that support your beliefs more than instances that contradict them
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construct
internal attributes or characteristics that cannot be directly observed but are useful for describing and explaining behaviour
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operational definition
definitions of theoretical constructs that are stated in term of concrete, observable procedures
* Variables can be well-defined and easily measured or manipulated * Some variables are not well-defined and cannot be directly observed
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descriptive research
often concerned with a single variable of interest. Involves the systematic observation and classification of behaviour. Provides qualitative information (surveys, focus groups, case studies, observational research)
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directionality problem
there are multiple possibilities that could explain the association between variables and the test does not tell us which one is correct
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third variable problem
there could be a 3rd variable that is not considered that is actually responsible for the results of the experiment
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external validity
generalizability
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internal validity
how well the study has established a cause and effect relationship
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WEIRD samples
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic
* populations are generally favoured for experiments, not fully representing the general publicÂ
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open science
* movement to make scientific research accessible to all levels of society, amateur or professional * transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
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Hawthorne effect
alteration of behaviour by the subjects of a study due to awareness of being observed
* limitation of descriptive research methods * demand characteristics
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quasi experiments
experimental design where random assignment is not possible
* potential confounds limits researcher claims * taking advantage of pre existing groups
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interrater reliability
measure of consistency used to evaluate the extent to which different judges agree in their assessment decisions
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test-retest reliability
a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a group of individuals