Anatomy & Physiology Exam 1

Predominant External Examination Types

Inspection, palpation, auscultation, and percussion

Internal Examination Types

imaging (sonography), endoscopy, biopsies

Gross Anatomy

The study of the structures in the body that are visible to the naked eye, including organs, organ systems, and overall body structure.

Histology

Examination of the composition and organization of cells with a microscope.

Theory of Evolution

Created by Charles Darwin; a model for how species originate and change over time; aids understanding of human form and function.

Some natural variability in anatomy b/w ppl include:

pelvic and horseshoe kidney, variations in branches of the aorta

Evolution

Any change in genetic composition of population of organisms; development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics.

Natural selection

How evolution works; genes cross over in time

What are the levels of structural organization of the human body?

Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ system, Organism

Physiology

The study of bodily functions; Basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures

Comparative Anatomy

The study of more than one species to analyze evolutionary trends

Comparative Physiology

The study of different species

Common Ancestry

The evolutionary idea that all living things come from one shared species

Vestigial Organs

Remnant organs better developed in ancestral species; serve little or no purpose in modern species due to change in diet.

Examples of Vestigial Organs

Vermiform appendix, palmaris longus, and tailbone

Inductive Reasoning (Data —> Pattern —> Conclusion)

A bottom-up approach; use specific premises to form a general conclusion; conclusions are probabilistic; if premises are true, conclusions need not always be true

Deductive Reasoning (Conclusion —> Experiment —> Evidence)

A top-down approach, use general premises to form a specific conclusion, conclusion are certain, if premises are true, conclusions are always true

Organization

A Characteristics of Life; Living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things

Cellular Composition

A Characteristics of Life; What cells are made up of; like water and macromolecules

Metabolism

A Characteristics of Life; Internal chemical change: anabolism, catabolism, and excretion

Responsiveness and movement

A Characteristic of Life

Homeostasis

A Characteristic of Life; maintenance of stable internal conditions, regardless of external conditions

Development

A Characteristic of Life; Change in form or function over lifetime; baby to adult

Reproduction

A Characteristics of Life; to be considered a living species, self-reproduction must be present

Evolution

A Characteristic of Life; populations change in genetic structure

Anabolism

Building up complex molecules from smaller ones. Protein Synthesis and photosynthesis.

Catabolism

Breaks down complex molecules into smaller molecules. Cellular Respiration

Receptor (Feedback Loops Structure)

Sense Change in the body; baroreceptors: sensors for circulatory system

Integrator (Feedback Loop Structure)

Control center that processes sensory information and directs a response; EX: brain region monitoring heart

Effector (Feedback Loop Structure)

Structures that restore homeostasis; EX: heart

Blood Pressure (Feedback Loop)

As heart rate increases blood pressure decreases, and as heart rate decrease blood pressure increases. EX: a person rises from bed, blood drains from upper body creating homeostatic imbalance, baroreceptors above heart respond to drop in blood pressure, baroreceptors send signals to cardiac center of brain, cardiac center accelerates heartbeat, blood pressure rises to normal and homeostasis is restored

Thermoregulation (Negative Feedback)

Change in blood temp detected: when too hot, blood vessels expand and skin expands, results in sweating. When too cold, blood vessels and skin narrow, resulting in shivering

A person is exercising on a hot day and their body temperature rises above normal. Describe the receptor/ integrator/effector.

Receptor: thermoregulators sense change in temperature and sends this information to the integrator, the integrator decides that the persons temperature is too high and directs effector to dilate blood vessels and skin to enable sweating to cool the body down, restoring homeostasis.

A person’s body temperature rises above its normal set point. The hypothalamus detects the change and signals sweat glands to increase sweating. Is this an example of negative of positive feedback?

Negative Feedback

What are Positive Feedback Loops? 2 examples

Self-amplifying cycle, where the stimulus is increased in intensity until a specific goal is reached and defaults to a negative feedback loop. Childbirth and fever.

What keeps cells small? What happens if V increases

Surface area to volume ratio. The cells membrane must be proportion ot the volume of the cytoplasm to allow for quick and efficient exchange of nutrients, oxygen, ions, and waste removal. If volume increases, the Surface area increases at a smaller about and is not able to properly carry out functions

Cellular loophole to increase SA without markedly increasing V

Membrane folding, microvilli, shape changes, and special extensions

Where do you often find cells with Cellular loopholes?

Microvilli, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, red blood cells, flagellum

Plasma Membrane

border of the cell, defines inside vs. outside of cell, manage interactions with other cells, and material transport, made of 2% proteins and 98% lipids

Phospholipids

A membrane lipid, 75% of membrane lipids, hydrophilic phosphate heads face water, hydrophobic tails directed toward center, drift laterally, keeping membrane fluid

Cholesterol

20% of the membrane lipids; holds phospholipids still and can stiffen membrane. Also makes steroids.

Glycolipids

5% of the membrane lipids, phospholipids with short carbohydrate chains on extracellular surface, and contributes to glycocalyx - carb coat

Receptor (Transmembrane Protein)

Bind chemical signals secreted by cells elsewhere to cause a specific change in a target cell. Change shape, causing specific effects inside cell

Enzyme (Transmembrane protein)

Helps with digestion, breaks down chemical signas, help produce “second messengers”, compounds that carry out instructions encoded by first messenger

Gated Channels (Ligand)

Respond to chemical messenger to open

Gated Channel (Voltage-gated channel)

Respond to electrical changes

Gated Channel (Mechanically-regulated channels)

Respond to physical stress on cell to open

Cell-adhesion Molecules (CAMs)

Proteins that bind cells to each other and to extracellular material, necessary for most cell types to grow

Second Messenger System

A First messenger such as epinephrine binds to a receptor in the plasma membrane, the receptor then releasses a G protein, which then travels freely in the cytoplasm and can go on to step 3 or have various other effects on the cell, then the G protein binds to an enzyme adenylate cyclase, in the plasma membrane. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP), the second messenger; cAMP then activates a cytoplasmic enzyme called a kinase, kinases then adds phosphate groups (Pi) to other cytoplasmic enzymes. This activates some enzymes and deactivates others, leading to varied metabolic effects in the cell.

Pheripheral Protein

G-protein

Microvilli

Extensions of membrane, best developed in cells specialized in absorption, found in small intestine

Cilia

Hair-like processes of the PM; single, nonmotile primary cilium found on nearly ecery cell as “antennae” for monitoring nearby conditions, multiple non-motile cilia found in nasal epithelium; motile cilia found in respiratory tract, uterine tubes, ventricles of brain, beat in waves sweeping material across cell surface; Cilia mucociliary action: cilia beat freeling within a saline layer, chloride pumps Cl- into ECF, Na+ and H2O follow

Pseudopods

Continually changing extensions of the cell that vary in shape and size, can be used for cellular locomotion, capturing foreign particles, and plugging blood vessels

Passive Transport

Noncarrier: Filtration, simple diffusion, osmosis. Carrier: facilitated diffusion. Do not require ATP

Active Transport

Noncarrier: vesicular transport. Carrier: pumps. Require ATP

Potassium ions are moving down their concentration gradient with the use of a protein channel to cross the plasma membrane. What type of transport is being used?

Passive Transport, simple diffusion

What are genes?

segments that code for proteins

Nitrogenous bases (Purines)

Adenine, Guanine

Nitrogenous bases (Pyrimidines)

Cytosine, Thymine

A binds to ….

T; T become U in RNA

C binds to

G

Chromatin

DNA & protein; 46 per cell

mRNA

Transcribed piece of DNA. Template for protein synthesis

tRNA

Small RNAs that facilitate protein assembly. Located in cytosol

rRNA

Forms part of ribosom

Transcription

Copying genetic instructions from DNA to mRNA within the nucleus, by RNA polymerase

Transcription: Splicing

introns are removed from the transcript and exons are translated into protein. Variation in splicing allow for different variety of proteins.

Translation

process that converts the language of nucleotides into the language of amino acids

Translation:Initiation

mRNA that left the nucleus travels to the ribosome, the ribosome reads the sequence of codons in mRNA

Translation: Elongation

tRNA molecules bring complementary amino acid anticodons to the rRNA according to the codons on mRNA. Amino acids are joined together to form a polypeptide by a peptide bond

Translation: Termination

The polypeptide grows with each added amino acid until a stop codon is reached (UAA, UAG, UGA). The polypeptide protein is released from the ribosome.

Drug X blocks the binding of the ribosome and tRNA. This will have interrupt what process and have what cellular ramifications?

Will interrupt translation, the protein that should be created will not be and may lead to deficiencies in the cell