Psychology AP Exam Review

Token economy

Everytime a desired behavior is performed, a token is given
-They can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers)
-Used in hoes, prisons, mental institutions, and schools

Nature vs Nurture;N v N

Heredity vs. Environment

Plato

Socrates' most well known pupil. Founded an academy in Athens.

Believes we inherit character and intelligence and certain ideas are also inborn

Aristotle

Greek philosopher. A pupil of Plato. Believed comes from the external world and senses.

Loche

In the 1600's this particular theorist believes that the mind is blank at birth

Opposite of Descartes-believed some ideas are innate at birth

levels of analysis

the differing complementary outlooks, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon/event

biosocial approach

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

behavioral approach

Approach focusing on how we learn observable responses

Biological Approach

an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system

How genes influence individual diffrences

Cognitive Approach

An approach to psychology: how we encode, process (reasoning and solving problems) and retrieve information

Huministic Approach

An approach to psychology: How we can work toward fulfilling our potential? How we can overcome barriers to our personal growth.

Pyschodynamic Approach

An approach to psychology: how behavior springs from unconscious thoughts

Social-Cultural approach

An approach to psychology: How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

psychometrics

the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

developmental psychology

branch of psychology: studies physical, cognitive, and social change

educational psychology

branch of psychology: studies influences on teaching and learning

personality psychology

branch of psychology: the scientific study of the psychological forces that make people uniquely themselves

social psychology

branch of psychology: exploring how we view and affect one another

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

I/O Psychologist

studies and advises on behavior in the workplace

sub field: Human factor psychologists focus on the interaction between people and machines

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

can psychology contribute to a good life that engages ones skill and a meaningful life that points beyond oneself

community psychology

branch of psychology: studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

Works to create environments that are healthy for all

Empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

G. Stanley Hall

american psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States and founded the American Psychological Association

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind
-Wundt's

Functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

mental processes

internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior

counsiling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with transition problems in living (often related to school, work, and marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

Barnum Effect

Tendency for people to accept vague characterizations of themselves
Horoscopes

Applied Research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
Clear applications
You can use it

Basic Research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
Explores curiosity
Not immediately useful

Catharsis

Process of releasing and thereby providing relief from strong/repressed emotions

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

Dendrites

receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages are sent to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons. Enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses

Resting Potential

The difference in electric charge between the inside and outside of a neuron's cell membrane
-the neuron is inactive - slightly negative charge
-Outside of the axon's membrane mostly positively charged ions and fluid interior mostly negative.

Reuptake

process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles

efferent neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands

Interneurons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

afferent neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep, arousal, and mood.

Endorphins

"morphine within"—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Peripheral nervous system;PNS

system responsible for gathering information and for transmitting CNS decisions to other body parts
-Everything but the brain and spinal cord
-Somatic and autonomic

Nerves

bundled axons that form neural "cables" connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of visceral muscles and internal organs and glands.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

Epinephrine

Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress.
-Also known as adrenaline.
-plays important role in the fight or flight response, emotional responses, and exercise

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress.
-plays part in fight or flight response, increases alertness, vigilance, and memory function.
-Also known as noradrenaline

Oxytocin

A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.

Pituitary Gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

An amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

CAT scan

a method of creating static images of the brain through computerized axial tomography

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

PET

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

ESB

electrical stimulation of the brain
-Involves the introduction of a weak electrical current into specific locations in the brain.
-Intended to mimic the natural flow of neural impulse through the neural pathways.

TMS

Imaging technique that allows scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific area of the brain.
-Performed on wide awake patients
-May disrupt the electrochemical brain patterns of depression
-Recent studies have confirmed its therapeutic effect

Brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

pons

A brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain

Reticular Formation

Filters incoming stimuli from the spinal cord's sensory input and relays important information to other brain areas
-Inside the brainstem behind the ears.

Cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem;
-Coordinates the fine muscle movements
-Enables nonverbal learning and memory.
-Helps us judge time, modulate our emotions, and discriminate sounds and textures
-Bottom rear of the brain

Medulla

Involved in the control of blood pressure, heart rate, breathing
Located just above the spinal cord

limbic system

neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

Hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus;
-Controls and regulates the body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst, the endocrine system
-One of multiple dopamine-related reward systems associated with the built-in systems for survival.

Amygdala

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system;
-Involved in how we process memory.
-More involved in volatile emotions like anger, intense emotions

Hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that Involved in the processing and storage of memories.
-If you lose it can't form new memories of facts or events

Left hemisphere

controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math

Right Hemisphere

controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial

Glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
-Sends signals to our body controlling muscle movements

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Parietal Lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Sensory Cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Wernike's Area

Interprets written and spoken speech

Temporal lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

occipital lobes

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Brain plasticity

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience

Neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

monozygotic twins

identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo

continuity and stages

Is development a gradual, continuous process or a sequence of separate stages?

stability-change issue

the debate about the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change

zygotes

fertilized eggs

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

placenta

A structure that allows an embryo to be nourished with the mother's blood supply

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth