Hardware

What is the central processing unit (CPU)?

processor central to all modern computer systems responsible for executing all instructions in a computer

Where is the CPU typically installed?

as an integrated circuit on a single microchip

What are the main components of the CPU?

CU, ALU, registers, buses

what does CU stand for

Control unit

what does ALU stand for

Arithmetic logic unit

what is the control unit

manages the execution of instructions and the flow of data

What is the arithmetic and logic unit

performs arithmetic and logic operations

What is the significance of the von Neumann architecture?

introduced the concept of a stored program computer

main features of the von Neumann architecture

concept of a central processing unit, direct memory access by the CPU, store programs and data in memory

key components of the von Neumann CPU architecture?

CPU, memory, system clock

What operations can the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) perform?

addition, subtraction, shifting

How are multiplication and division handled by the ALU?

carried out by a sequence of addition, subtraction, and left or right logical shift operations.

What is the role of the Control Unit (CU)?

reads an instruction from memory

Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle

generates control signals

ensures synching of data flow

Where is the address of the instruction stored?

PC

what does PC stand for in the CPU

Program counter

What is the purpose of the system clock?

ensure vital synching of data flow and program instructions

what does the system clock prevent

the computer crashing

what does RAM stand for

random access memory

what is RAM also referred as

Immediate access memory

what is the role of RAM

holds all the data and programs needed by the CPU temporarily

Why is data stored in RAM instead of backing store?

read/write operations using RAM are considerably faster

What are registers in the von Neumann system?

fundamental components that can be general or special purpose.

How are system buses used in a computer?

connect the CPU to the memory and to input/output devices

How is computer memory structured?

made up of partitions

what do partitions consist of

an address and its contents

purpose of the address in the partitions

identifies every location in the memory

how are contents stored in partitions

in binary value

What is the Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle?

Control Unit reads an instruction from memory, decodes it, and then executes it

What is the role of input devices in a computer system?

convert external data into a form the computer can understand and process

What is the role of output devices in a computer system?

show the results of computer processing in a human understandable form

What are system buses in computers?

parallel transmission components used to transmit data

what does each wire in a system bus do

transmits one bit of data.

Name the three common buses used in the von Neumann architecture.

address bus

data bus

control bus

What does the address bus do?

carries addresses throughout the computer system

where is the address bus connected or where does the address bus send addresses

unidirectional between the CPU and memory

what does unidirectional mean

bits travel in one direction only.

Why is the width of the address bus important?

determines the number of memory locations that can be directly addressed at any given time.

What is the function of the data bus?

allowing data to be sent in both directions between the CPU, memory, and input/output devices.

what does bidirectional mean

both directions or two directions

what directional path does the data bus follow

bidirectional

Why is the width of the data bus important?

determines the word length that can be transported

What is a word in computer terms?

a group of bits that can be regarded as a single unit

What is the role of the control bus?

carries signals from the control unit (CU) to all other computer components.

what direction does the control bus

bidirectional

How wide is the control bus typically

8-bits wide

why is the control bus usually 8-bits wide

only needs to carry control signals.

What happens during the Fetch stage of the Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle?

fetched from the memory address stored in the MAR/MDR

copied to the CIR

PC is incremented by 1.

What happens during the Decode stage of the Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle?

fetched instruction is decoded for interpretation and execution

What happens during the Execute stage of the Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle?

CPU passes the decoded instruction

components to carry out the instruction in sequence

What does the system clock do in a CPU?

synching all computer operations

timing signals transmitted

How does clock speed affect CPU performance?

Increasing clock speed increases processing speed

What is overclocking

changing the clock speed higher than designed

how can overclocking be achieved

by accessing the BIOS

what are the potential issues of overclocking

Unsynched operations, overheating, crashing, instability

How does cache memory improve CPU performance?

faster data access times than RAM

what does cache memory store

frequently used instructions and data

where is cache memory located

within the CPU

Why doesn't doubling the number of CPU cores necessarily double performance?

need for communication between the CPU and cores can reduce the potential performance increase.

What components make up one core in a CPU?

made up of an ALU, a control unit, and the registers.

How does the width of the address bus and data bus affect CPU performance?

amount of data that can be transmitted at once

How does increasing bus width affect computer performance?

increases the performance and speed of a computer system.

What is the impact of increasing clock speed on a computer?

potentially increase the speed of a computer

What factors can change a computer’s performance?

altering bus width

altering clock speed

using multi-core CPUs

add cache memories

What is the role of cache memory in a CPU?

speed up a CPU’s performance by storing frequently used instructions

What are instructions in a computer system?

operations decoded in sequence,

made up of an opcode and an operand

What is an opcode?

informs the CPU what operation needs to be done.

What is an operand?

data that needs to be acted on

What is an instruction set?

limited number of opcodes used by the CPU to carry out operations

what does an instruction set form

low-level language instructions understood by the computer

What is the Fetch–Decode–Execute cycle?

sequence of steps used by the CPU to process each instruction in sequence.

What is the X86 instruction set?

standard instruction set used in many modern computers

what manufacturers use X86 instruction set

Intel Pentium

AMD athlon

How are instruction sets different from programming code?

Instruction sets are low-level language instructions

programming code needs interpreters to be converted into instruction sets

Give some examples of instruction set operations.

ADD

JMP

LDA

What does the instruction set operation "ADD" stand for?

adds the values of two operands and stores the result.

What does the instruction set operation "JMP" stand for?

Jump

What does the instruction set operation "LDA" stand for?

Load accumulator

what does the JMP instruction set operation do

jump to a different instruction address in the program, altering the flow of execution.

what does the instruction set operation LDA do

loads a value from memory into the accumulator register

What is an embedded system?

combination of hardware and software designed to carry out a specific set of functions

What is a microcontroller in an embedded system?

a chip that includes a CPU, RAM, ROM, and other peripherals

What is a microprocessor in an embedded system?

integrated circuit with only a CPU on the chip

what does SoC stand for

system on a chip

How can data be inputted into an embedded system?

inputted manually by an operator or automatically via sensors

What is the nature of sensor inputs in embedded systems?

can be analogue or digita

How do non-programmable embedded devices handle software upgrades?

need to be replaced if they require a software upgrade

How can programmable embedded devices be upgraded

can be upgraded by connecting to a computer for software downloads

What are some remote control capabilities of embedded systems connected to the internet?

Embedded systems connected to the internet can be controlled remotely

Why can embedded systems be optimized in their design?

Embedded systems are optimized for specific tasks, allowing engineers to reduce their physical size and cost.

Give an example of the range of applications for embedded systems.

single microcontroller in an MP3 player

Why is a computer not considered an embedded system?

A computer is multi-functional, capable of performing various tasks with different software

What is a system on a chip (SoC) in an embedded system?

microchip that integrates multiple components

includes a microcontroller to manage specific tasks

Use of embedded systems in motor vehicles

engine management

safety features

infotainment systems

Function of embedded systems in set-top boxes

record and playback TV programs

can operate remotely via internet-enabled devices

handle inputs from SSDs and satellite signals

Role of embedded systems in security systems

set security codes in RAM

control outputs like flashing lights, alarms

access remotely

Use of embedded systems in lighting systems

control lights based on time of day

adjust light levels automatically

room occupancy

Importance of embedded systems in office lighting

dimming lights during unoccupied times to save energy

adjust light output based on natural light

Examples of embedded systems in external lighting

fountain light displays

light shows for special occasions

emergency lighting in planes

Use of Bluetooth light bulbs in lighting systems

control each bulb independently