Psychology test chapters 1-2-5

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

A topic not observable, but still a valid study in psychology

People's thoughts and emotion's

How is science defined?

Through careful observation and experimentation

What does experimentation require?

Sharing results in a way that allows others to duplicate and verify the work

Four main goals of psychology

describe, explain, predict, control behavior

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

Founded the first psychology laboratory, at the University of Leipzig in Germany. 'Father of Psychology'. Created approach of structuralism. Wanted to know structure of mind. Introspection. Opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879.

What was Wundt's aim?

To measure psychological processes through introspection

Introspection

A method used to examine one's own conscious activities

Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983)

The first Black woman to be awarded a PhD in psychology from Columbia University.

What did Mamie Phipps examine?

The impact of prejudice and discrimination on child development.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Focused on "Abnormal" aspects.

What did Freud believe?

That behavior and personality are influenced by the conflict between one's inner desires (sexual/aggressive) and expectations of society.

When does the clash between inner desires and society's expectations occur?

Unconsciously or outside of awareness

Watson's Behaviorism

Views psychology as the scientific study of behaviors that could be seen and/or measured

What were not suitable topics of study according to Watson?

Consciousness, sensations, feelings, the unconscious

What did Skinner acknowledge?

Mental processes such as memory and emotion might exist, but they are not topics to be studied in psychology.

What did skinner insist on?

Studying behaviors that could be observed and documented.

Founders of Humanistic Psychology

Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

What does the humanistic perspective suggest?

Human nature is essentially positive, and that people are naturally inclined to grow and change for the better

What did humanism challenge?

The thinking and practice of researchers and clinicians who had been "raised" on Watson and Skinner.

What did psychologists study during the prime of behaviorism?

During the two-decade prime of behaviorism (1930-1950), many psychologists only studied observable behavior.

Prior to behaviorism, what did psychologists emphasize?

The study of thoughts and emotions

What happened when a new force in psychology appeared?

It brought these unobservable elements back into focus. This renewed interest in the study of mental processes falls under the field of cognitive psychology

Evolutionary according to evolutionary perspective

Behaviors and mental processes are shaped by the forces of evolution This perspective is based on Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and the principles of natural selection.

What traits evolved during natural selection?

Adaptive traits and behaviors

The biological perspective...

uses knowledge about underlying physiology to explain behavior and mental processes

Psychologists who take the biological approach explore how...

biological factors, such as hormones, genes, and the brain, are involved in behavior and cognition.

The sociocultural perspective suggests that

we must examine the influences of social interactions and culture, including the roles we play

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) proposed...

we must examine how social and cultural features in children's lives influence their cognitive development

Why can't we use pseudopsychology to help predict and explain behaviors?

Because there is no solid evidence for its effectiveness

Critical thinnking is the process of

weighing various pieces of evidence, synthesizing them (putting them together), and determining how each contributes to the bigger picture.

Critical thinking requires a person to

consider the source of information and the quality of evidence before making a decision on the validity of material.

What does the critical thinking process involve

thinking beyond definitions, focusing on underlying concepts and applications, and being open-minded and skeptical at the same time.

Pseudopsychology is not driven by

critical thinking

Psychology is driven by

critical thinking

Critical thinking is an important component of

The scientific method, the process scientists use to conduct research. .

The goal of scientific method is to

provide empirical evidence, or data from systematic observations or experiments.

An experiment is

a controlled procedure involving scientific observations and/or manipulations by the researcher to influence participants' thinking, emotions, or behaviors.

In the scientific method

an observation must be objective, or outside the influence of personal opinion and preconceived notions

Steps for Scientific Method

1. Develop a question
2. Create a hypothesis

Step 1: Develop a question

begins when a researcher observes something interesting in the environment and comes up with a research question.

Step 2: create a hypothesis

A statement that can be used to test a prediction. The data collected by the experimenter will either support or refute the hypothesis.

Variables

The data collected by the experimenter will either support or refute the hypothesis.

In psychological experiments

Researchers study a variety of characteristics pertaining to humans and other organisms.

Examples of variables

Personality characteristics (shyness or friendliness), cognitive characteristics (memory), number of siblings in a family, gender, socioeconomic status, and so forth.

Random sample

Theoretically, any member of the population has an equally likely chance of being selected to participate in the study.

A representative sample

Members' characteristics closely reflect those of the population of interest.

naturalistic observation

Involves studying participants in their natural environments using systematic observation.

Natural environments...

Don't necessarily mean the "wild." It could be an office, a home, or even a preschool

The most important feature of naturalistic observation is

That researchers do not disturb the participants or their environment

Case study

A detailed examination of an individual or small group.

Case studies typically involve

Collecting a vast amount of data on one particular person or group, often using multiple avenues to gather information.

The process of case study

Might include in-depth interviews with the person being studied and her friends, family, and co-workers, and questionnaires about medical history, career, and mental health.

The Genain quadruplets

Identical quadruplet sisters who all developed schizophrenia. Demonstrated a genetic factor is involved in schizophrenia

Correlational method

Examines relationships among variables and assists researchers in making predictions.

A correlation represents

A relationship or link between variables

Experimental method

Can tell us about cause and effect, because it aims to ensure that every variable except those being manipulated by the researcher is held constant, or controlled

Experimental manipulation

The change that the researcher deliberately makes in an experiment, This allows researchers to observe the variable of interest without interference from other variables.

Difference between experimental and control groups

The variable researchers are manipulating

independent variable

The one variable the researchers are deliberately changing

Dependent variable

what is being measured as a result of that manipulation

Consciousness

The subjective state of being currently aware of something either within oneself or outside of oneself

Consciousness is subjective

Pertaining only to the individual who experiences it. Because of this, it is impossible to objectively study another's conscious experience

Consciousness is constantly changing

There is great variety in the conscious experiences within a person from moment-to-moment.

Asselective attetio

Although we have access to a great deal of information in our internal and external environments, we can only focus our attention on a small portion of that information at one time.

Cocktail-party effect

You are able to pay attention to your conversation despite all the noise from the many other conversations.

Circadian rhythm

Many things your body does, including sleep, are regulated by a biological clock.

When is growth hormone released?

during sleep

functions of hypothalamus

Maintains blood pressure, temperature, and electrolyte balance, sleep-wake cycles, sexual arousal, and appetite.

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

consists of two clusters totaling 20,000 neurons

What role does the scn play

Plays a role in our circadian rhythm by communicating with other areas of the hypothalamus, which regulates daily patterns of hunger and temperature, and the reticular formation, which regulates alertness and sleepiness

The SCN knows the difference between

Day and night. That's because it receives signals from a special type of light-sensing cells in the eye, called retinal ganglion cells

How does the SCN keep you on schedule?

By indirectly communicating with the pineal gland, a part of the endocrine system, to regulate the release of melatonin, a hormone that promotes sleep. In dark conditions, the clock commands the pineal gland to produce melatonin, making it easier to sleep.

When light hits the eye...

Melatonin secretion slows down

Alpha waves

As you become more and more drowsy, the electrical activity measured by an EEG would likely begin showing alpha waves which are lower in frequency than beta waves

A normal sleeper begins the night in

Non-rapid eye movement (non-REM), or nondreaming, sleep, which has four stages

Non-REM: stage 1

Light sleep, muscles go limp and body temperature starts to fall. Theta waves present

Non-REM: stage 2

Sleep, lightly deeper than stage 1. Theta waves continue showing. Bursts of electrical activity called sleep spindles and large waves called K-complexes appearing every 2 minutes or so.

Non-REM: stage 3 and 4

Are known as slow-wave sleep, because they are characterized by tall, low-frequency delta waves.

Stage 4 non-REM sleep contains a higher proportion of

Delta waves

REM: Stage 5

A person's eyes often dart around, even though they are closed.

Another name for REM sleep

Paradoxical sleep, because the sleeper appears to be quiet and resting, but the brain is full of electrical activity

How long does non-REM sleep last

About 90 minutes per stage, and the average adult sleeper loops through five of them per night.

REM cycles

The first REM episode may last a mere 5 to 10 minutes, whereas the final one may drag on for nearly a half-hour

Sleep stage where we spend the most time

Stage 2

Cataplexy

Sudden episodes of total loss of muscle tone or strength that occur when a person is awake. During a severe cataplectic attack, some muscles go limp, and the body may collapse slowly to the floor like a rag doll.

Sleep paralysis

A temporary paralysis that strikes just before falling asleep or upon waking up

The body becomes paralyzed during REM

But sometimes this paralysis sets in prematurely or fails to turn off on time

hypnagogic hallucinations

Can be experienced during stage 1. But not all hypnagogic hallucinations involve harmless blobs. They can also be realistic visions of axe murderers or space aliens trying to abduct you.

REM sleep behavior disorder

a neurological disorder in which the person does not become paralyzed during REM sleep and thus acts out dreams

REM sleep behavior disorder foreshadows

The development of serious neurodegenerative disorders—conditions such as Parkinson's disease and dementia

Nightmares

Occur during REM sleep. Unlike night terrors, nightmares can often be recalled in vivid detail. Because nightmares usually occur during REM sleep, they are generally not acted out

Comprehensive theory of dreaming

Developed by sigmund freud. Proposing that dreams were a form of "wish fulfillment," or a playing out of unconscious desires

Most dreaming occurs during

During REM sleep and is jam-packed with rich sensory details and narrative. Dreams also occur during non-REM sleep, but they lack the vivid imagery and storylike quality of REM dreams.

The average person starts dreaming

About 90 minutes into sleep, then goes on to have about four to six dreams during the night.

Caffeine

A psychoactive drug found in coffee, soda, tea, and medicines.

Alcohol and nicotine

Two substances that present serious health risks

Prescription medication

Drugs for pain relief, depression, insomnia, and just about any ailment you can imagine. Don't forget the illicit, or illegal, drugs like LSD and Ecstasy.

Dangers of drugs in combination

Their effects can be additive, greatly increasing the risk of overdose. For example, alcohol and barbiturates both bind to GABA receptors

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

GABA's inhibitory action has a sedating effect, which is a good thing when you need to relax. But too much GABA will relax physiological processes to the point where unconscious, life-sustaining activities shut down, causing you to stop breathing and die