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biogeochemical cycle
the movement of elements or molecules between the living and nonliving parts of earth
biosphere
the global system containing all organisms
reservoir
a location within a biogeochemical cycle where an element or compound is stored
flux
the transfer of molecules from one reservoir to another over a specific period of time
residence time
the average time that an element or compound spends in a particular reservoir
weathering
the breakdown of rock structure through mechanical and chemical processes
greenhouse gas
a gas that absorbs infrared radiation and traps heat in the atmosphere
nitrogen fixation
the conversion of atmospheric N2 into a reactive nitrogen compound
denitrification
the microbiological conversion of nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen forms including nitrous oxide (N20) and dinitrogen gas (N2)
acid precipitation
forms of precipitation that contain unusually high concentrations of acid
fresh water
water that is almost salt free
hydrologic cycle
the continuous movement of water between the atmosphere, land, and the ocean
evaporation
the conversion of water from a liquid to a gas form
transpiration
the process by which water transfers from a liquid to a gas form by entering the roots of a plant and evaporating through the leaves
precipitation
liquid or solid forms of water that fall to Earth’s surface
watershed
an area of land in which water drains to a single surface reservoir
sublimation
the transformation of water from a solid (frozen) form to a gaseous form (water vapor)
infiltration
the passage of water into the soil
percolation
the passage of water through the soil
runoff
the flow of water over the soil surface
unsaturated zone
layers of surface soil and rock in which air is present in the areas around the particles
saturated zone
layers of soil or rock in which the particles are surrounded by water
water table
the top of the saturated zone
aquifers
a subsurface layer of rock that contains and transports groundwater
stream
a flow of surface water within a defined channel caused by gravity
river
a large, naturally flowing stream
discharge
the volume of water in a river that passes a certain point over a specific period of time
hydrograph
a graphical representation of the variation in discharge over a specific period of time
flooding
an overflowing of water onto land that is usually dry
riparian zone
a narrow strip of vegetation immediately adjacent to a stream
sediment
small particles of rock and soil transported in a stream
littoral zone
the zone of water in a pond or lake that is near shore and shallow enough for light to penetrate the bottom
limnetic zone
the zone of open water in a pond or lake that is beyond the littoral zone and is too deep for light to penetrate to the bottom
profundal zone
the zone of water in a pond or lake below the limnetic zone
thermocline
an area of water in a pond or lake where the temperature changes substantially over a very small distance
benthic zone
the bottom of a pond or lake, consisting of layers of fine particles of minerals and organic matter; the ocean zone that includes the area at and near the ocean floor
wetland
an area of land that is periodically or permanently saturated by water
hydric soils
soil found in wetlands that contains large amounts of organic matter and often has low oxygen availability
hydrophytes
a wetland plant that grows in or on water
irrigation
the artificial capture, storage, and transport of water for crops
renewable freshwater resource
a freshwater source that is resupplied at least as quickly as it is used
nonrenewable freshwater resource
a freshwater source that is depleted faster than it is formed
consumptive water use
the use of water that does not return to its source or whose quality is degraded to the degree that it can no longer serve as a usable resource
nonconsumptive water use
the use of water that is subsequently returned to surface water supplies at or near the sit of its use
virtual water
water that is used to produce a product
physical water scarcity
a condition that occurs when there is not enough freshwater to meet the demands of a population
economic water scarcity
a condition that occurs when there is sufficient physical supply but inadequate physical or government infrastructure to capture, purify, or distribute that water
recharge rate
the rate at which groundwater naturally forms
water right
a legal agreement that gives the owner of the right the ability to use water from some source
desalination
the process of removing dissolved salts from saline water in order to produce water that can be used for human consumption or use
biological magnification
the process by which animals eat other plants or animals causing toxins to accumulate in tissues at increasingly higher concentrations
eutrophication
a condition in which excess nutrients cause the rapid growth of algae and the depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water
point-source pollution
pollution that comes from a single location (or point)
non-point-source pollution
pollution that comes from many widely distributed, small sources, which collectively release a large amount of pollutants to the environment
subsidence
the gradual shrinking of an area of land
atmosphere
the envelope of gases that surrounds a planet and that is held in place by the planet’s gravitational field
trace gases
gases present in the atmosphere at concentrations less than 1%
inert
for a chemical, having a limited ability to react with other chemicals under normal conditions
chemically reactive
for a chemical, having the ability to undergo chemical reactions under normal conditions
element
a substance that cannot be chemically broken apart into other substances
oxidation
the process by which forms of oxygen participate in a variety of chemical reactions in which oxygen atoms are added to other elements and compounds
radiatively active
a property of gases that absorb incoming solar radiation or outgoing infrared radiation and which, thereby, alter the amount of heat present in the atmosphere
atmospheric pressure
the pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere
density
the mass (amount of matter) of a substance per unit of volume, expressed by the equation d = m/V
troposphere
the lowest layer of the atmosphere, which is characterized by the turbulent mixing of air
stratosphere
the second layer of the atmosphere, which ranges from a lower altitude of 7 km in far northern or southern latitudes and 17 km at the equator to an upper limit of 50 km
atmospheric circulation cell
a pattern of large-scale movement of air around the planet caused by the unequal heating of Earth’s surface
Hadley cell
an atmospheric circulation cell that consists of rising warm air from the tropics replaced by a surface flow of cooler air from about 30 degrees North or South latitude
polar cell
an atmospheric circulation that consists of rising warm air from about 60 degrees North or South latitude and cooling air moving from the North or South Pole
Ferrel Cell
an atmospheric circulation cell located between about 30 degrees and 60 degrees North or South latitude
Coriolis effect
an apparent clockwise deflection of winds in the Northern Hemisphere and an apparent counterclockwise deflection in the Southern Hemisphere
jet stream
a narrow band of winds that occurs near the top of the troposphere at the intersection of air masses with different properties
storm
a disturbance in the normal condition of the atmosphere that is characterized by the formation of an area of low atmospheric pressure
monsoon
a seasonal reversal in wind direction that occurs over parts of some continents
weather
phenomena occurring in the atmosphere at a certain point in time, which result from short-term variations in atmospheric conditions
variance
a measure of variation around the mean
droughts
an extended period of below average precipitation
nitrogen oxides
pollutants that include the gases nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), which together are called NOx
sulfur oxides
pollutants that include the gases sulfur oxide (SO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2), which together are called SOx
ozone
a molecule made up of three oxygen atoms (O3)
primary pollutant
a chemical form of pollution that is released directly into the atmosphere
secondary pollutant
a chemical form of pollution that is formed when primary pollutants and other gases react in the atmosphere
particulate pollution
solid materials of varying chemical composition that are suspended in the atmosphere
lead
a metal found in the atmosphere as a form of particulate air pollution
carbon monoxide
an odorless, colorless gas with the chemical formula CO that is produced during the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
wet deposition
a process in which different types of chemicals that dissolve into water fall out of the atmosphere to the ground
dry deposition
a process in which different types of chemicals are directly deposited from the atmosphere to the land without precipitation
ozone layer
a naturally occurring region of highly concentrated ozone between 15 and 40 km in the atmosphere
chloroflueorocarbons
(CFCs) a class of chemical compounds that were created for use as refrigerants and aerosol propellants but also proved to cause the loss of the stratospheric ozone
salinity
the total mass of salts compared to the mass of the water in which they are dissolved
mixed layer
the surface layer of the ocean, which mixes as a result of waves and temperature variations
transition layer
the middle layer of the ocean, in which temperature and salinity decline quickly
deep ocean
the deepest layer of the ocean, where temperature and salinity stay more or less constant and overall density is lower than the other layers
ocean current
a directional and continuous flow of seawater caused by a variety of factors including but not limited to wind and waves
upwelling
an ocean current that flows from the deep ocean to the surface ocean
downwelling
an ocean current that flows from the surface ocean to the deep ocean
thermohaline circulation
a global set of surface and deep ocean currents that are caused by differences in temperature and salinity
Gulf Stream
a huge current of warm water that starts in the tropics and travels up the eastern coast of the United States
intertidal zone
the ocean zone that includes the area at the edge of land and water, between the high and low tides
coastal zone
the ocean zone that includes the area from land to the edge of the continental shelf