Chapter 6: CNS - Powerpoint

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117 Terms

1
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what is in the grey matter?
cell bodies and unmyelinated axons/dendrites

nuclei

mostly outer layer of brain, inner region of spinal cord
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what is in the white matter?
myelinated axons

tracts

mostly inner region of brain, outer layer of spinal cord
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what are neurons?
10% of CNS cells

are the excitable cells

includes multipolar (pyramidal) and axononic cells
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what are microglia?
90% of CNS cells

are the support cells
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what are the glial/neuroglial cells?
oligodendrocytes

astrocytes

microglia

ependymal cells
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what are oligodendrocytes?
aid in CNS myelination

one neuron axon - several oligodendrocytes

one oligodendrocyte - several neuron axons

creates nodes of ranvier
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what are the CNS and PNS diseases associated with demyelination?
gulliain-barre syndrom: inflammatory response (PNS)

multiple sclerosis: autoimmune disease (CNS)

heavy metal poisoning (CNS)

active herpes HHV-6: immune system (CNS)
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what are astrocytes?
communication network via gap junctions

involved in blood-brain barrier

support neurons by providing nutrients

regulate ions in ISF

uptake and release of chemicals at synapse
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what are microglia?
immune cells (macrophages)

phagocytosis

release reactive oxygen species (ROS): excess amounts result in degenerative neural diseases such as ALS
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what are ependymal cells?
neural stem cells made up off neurons and glial cells, but are not very effective

lines ventricles and central canal with capillaries that form choroid plexus

involved in cerebrospinal fluid production and circulation

selectively permeable endothelial layer
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what does the brainstem consist of?
medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, cerebellum

cranial nerves II-XI

reticular formation
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what is the reticular formation?
network between spinal cord and superior regions of the brain

involved in sleep-wake cycles, muscle tone, stretch reflex, breathing cycles, blood pressure, and pain regulation
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what is the medulla?
most somatic motor pathway decussation, breathing center, heart rate center, blood pressure and swallowing
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what are the pons?
coordination of breathing, relay between cerebellum and cerebrum
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what is the midbrain?
auditory and visual reflexes, eye movement
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what is the cerebellum?
sensory information such as proprioception, other somatic senses, and equilibrium

develop coordinated and fluid motion
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what does the diencephalon consist of?
thalamus, hypothalamus, and endocrine
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what is the thalamus?
integration center that can modify information

it is a relay station for eyes, ears, spinal cord, cerebellum → cerebrum
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what is the hypothalamus?
involved in homeostasis
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what s the endocrine?
involved in homeostasis

includes the pituitary (anterior = endocrine hormones; posterior = neurohormones from hypothalamus)

pineal gland = melatonin
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what is the cerebrum?
lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital

sulci and gyri, corpus callosum

higher brain functions including basal ganglia (movement) and limbic system (cognition and emotion)

amygdala and cingulate gyrus = emotion and memories

hippocampus = memory and learning
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what is the gray matter in the spinal cord?
horns
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what is the white matter in the spinal cord?
ascending tracts - sensory

descending tracts - motor

propriospinal tracts - interconnect levels within spinal cord
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what is the function of the dorsal root and ganglion?
involved in sensory information
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what is a dermatome?
cutaneous sensory associated with a spinal nerve
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what is a myotome?
muscles associated with a spinal nerve
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what is the CSF?
cerebral spinal fluid flows through ventricles, subarachnoid space, villi, and cranial venous sinuses

constantly replaced and produces 500 ml/day
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what are the functions of cerebral spinal fluid?
protection:

* physical: buoyancy and padding
* chemical: exchanges with interstitial fluid to remove waste solutes
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how is CSF different from plasma?
increase water, decrease osmolarity

increase NaCl, decrease K+, decrease Ca2+, decrease proteins and no cells
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what is the function of the blood brain barrier?
very selectively permeable: carrier mediated and receptor mediated transport

no BBB in hypothalamic-hypopseal portal system, vomiting center, pineal gland
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what are the functions of the CNS?

1. communication between PNS and CNS: integration of information
2. communication within brain
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function of the CNS: communication between PNS and CNS
involves cranial nerves and spinal nerves

reflexes
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what are the different types of reflexes?
autonomic, somatic, reflex arc
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what are autonomic reflexes?
glands, smooth muscle, cardiac muscles
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what are somatic reflexes?
skeletal muscles
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what are reflex arcs?
spinal cord integration is the simplest reflex

monosynaptic and polysynaptic
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what are monosynaptic reflexes?
sensory neuron → motor neuron
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what are polysynaptic reflexes?
sensory neuron → interneuron → motor neuron
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function of the CNS: communication within brain
neural plasticity: creation of new synapses and pathways

complex brain reflexes: originate in the brain and integrates multiple brain regions
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how does the brain integrate and communicate?
sensory area information → association area information → motor area information
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what is does the parietal lobe consist of?
primary somatic sensory cortex or somatosensory cortex

sensory association area

homunculus
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what does the occipital lobe consist of?
primary visual cortex

visual association
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what does the temporal lobe consist of?
primary auditory cortex

association area
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what does the insula consist of?
gustatory cortex
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what does the frontal lobe consist of?
primary motor cortex

motor association area

prefrontal association area
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what is cerebral lateralization or cerebral dominance?
right brain DOES NOT EQUAL left brain
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what is the left hemisphere associated with?
language, verbal, math
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what is the right brain associated with?
spatial
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what is motor dominance?
right or left handedness

somatic motor control
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how is sensations perceived?

1. transduction in the the PNS
2. transmission to the CNS
3. interpretation in the CNS
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how do we we get motor output

4. skeletal movement (somatic motor system with cerebellum and basal ganglia)
5. neuroendocrine signals (hypothalamus and autonomic system via adrenal gland)


1. visceral response (medulla, hypothalamus, autonomic system)
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what is the behavioral state system?
involved with consciousness

regulated by the reticular activating system (RAS) and hypothalamus
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what are consicous experiences?
something you are aware of

awake or asleep, thoughts or ideas, feelings or perceptions
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how can we measure consciousness?
electroencephalogram (EEG) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
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how do electroencephalograms work?
looks at graded potentials: EPSPs and IPSPs

specifically looking at pyramidal cell functions
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what are EGG waveform characteristics?
amplitude (microVolts)

frequency (Hz)
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what does high/low amplitudes in EEG waveforms mean?
high: synchronous firing and many neurons active

low: asynchronous firing or few neurons active
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what does high frequency in EEG waveforms means?
increased frequency typically means increased state of alertness
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how can EEGs be used a diagnostic tool?
abnormal patterns may be indicators of disease or damage

ex: epilepsy
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what are the EEG waveform characteristics when awake?
awake = active interactions with the environment

beta and alpha rhythm
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what do beta rhythms indicate?
active, calm, eyes open, attentive to an external stimulus

desynchronized waveforms: 16-31 Hz
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what are gamma waves?
32+ Hz

cross-modal sensory processing

short-term memory matching of recognized objects, sounds, tactile sensations
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what do alpha rhythms indicate?
awake, relaxed, eyes closed

synchronized waveform: 8-15 Hz
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how can EEGs be used to help us learn about sleep?
brain is still active

theta and delta rhythms
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what do theta waves indicate?
usually drosy, sleepy, relaxed and idling

synchronized waveforms: 4-7 Hz
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what do delta waves indicate?
slow wave sleep, some continuous attention tasks

synchronized waveforms:
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what are the stages of nonrapid eye movement?
N1, N2, N3
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what are characteristics of N1 NREM?
drowsiness and light sleep

alpha waves and some theta waves
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what are characteristics of N2 NREM?
decreased sensitivity to stimuli

theta waves + spindles and K-complexes
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what are characteristics of N3 NREM?
deep or slow wave sleep

predominantly delta rhythms

essential for rest and release of growth hormones
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what stage is associated with rapid eye movement?
R
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what are characteristics of R in REM?
overall decreased muscle tone and activity, except for eye movement, increased respiration, heart rate, blood pressure, and muscle twitches in face and limbs

dreaming, stimulate areas of the brain used for learning, thinking and organizing information
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what is sleep apnea?
relaxation of airway muscles that obstructs breathing
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what are the cycles of NREM and REM sleep?
N1 → N2 → N3 → N2 → R

typically 4-6 cycles per night, shifts from NREM sleep to more REM
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how are the sleep-wake cycles controlled?
reticular activating system

hypothalamus

pineal gland
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how does the reticular activating system control sleep-wake cycle?
norepinephrine and serotonin neurons are active in wake periods

cholinergic neurons are active in REM sleep periods
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how does the hypothalamus control sleep-wake cycle?
preoptic area involves GABA neurons which are active inNREM sleep

histamine neurons are active in wake periods
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how does the pineal gland control sleep-wake cycle?
darkness will increase melatonin released

induces lower body temperature
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how does caffeine affect the sleep-wake cycle?
* adenosine: ATP → ADP → AMP → adenosine
* adenosine receptors in reticular activating system
* adenosine accumulation triggers sleep
* caffeine mimics adenosine by being an adenosine receptor competitor
* activity activates the pituitary which released epinephrine from adrenal gland
* also a release of dopamine which makes you feel better
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what is emotion?
perception of and predisposition towards the environment

friendly and happy vs threatening and fearful
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what is the physiological response to emotional behavior?
hypothalamus, limbic amygdala, and cerebral cortex are involved

heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation, sweating, blushing, etc.
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what are the internal responses to emotional behavior?
limbic system and integrating areas such as the cerebral cortex are involved
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what is the primary motivated behavior or drive?
behavior to promote homeostasis

ex: hungry → eat
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what is the secondary motivated behavior?
behavior to reflect preferences or involves choices

ex: what to eat or drink
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how does reward and punishment affect motivation?
positive and negative reinforcement affect how dopamine diffuses in the modulatory system

ex: amphetamines and caffeine increase the release of dopamine = positive

ex: antipsychotic drugs blocks the release of dopamine = negative
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what are persistent inner emotions or perceived state of being?
longer lasting, more consistent or stable than moods


1. depression
2. seasonal affective depressive disorder
3. bipolar disorders
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what is depression?
depressed activity in the limbic system and prefrontal cortex

primary depression/endogenous depression

secondary depression/exogenous or reactive depression

treatment: antidepressents alter activity at the synapses and duration of presence of neurotransmitters

treatment: electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
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what is a treatment for season affective depressive disorder?
phototherapy
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what is bipolar disorder?
manic depression: mood swings

treatments: lithium and anti-convulsant drugs reduce extreme mood swings
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how is lithium an effective treatment for bipolar disorder?
lithium inhibits dopamine neurotransmission and promotes GABAergic neurotransmission

presynaptic: facilitates GABA release

postsynaptic: upregulates GABA_B receptors
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what are the different types of learning?
associative learning

non-associative learning

orienting response
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what is associative learning?
2 things are associate with each other

ex: desired behavior → reward
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what is nonassociative learning?
repetition of a single stimulus

habituation → decreases response

sensitization → amplification of response
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habituation and sensitization are examples of ____________________
selective attention
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what is orienting response?
responding to a novel stimulus
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what is memory?
ability to store and retriieve learned material
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what is neural encoding?
development of memory traces

‘commit to memory’ - memory formation - memory traces

parallel processing
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what is parallel processing?
alternate pathways allows branching and converging of information
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what is amnesia?
loss of memory

retrograde and anterograde amnesia
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what is retrograde amnesia?
loss of memory for information acquired before the onset of amnesia