Receptors that open or close an ion channel upon binding a particular ligand.
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Catalytic receptors
Receptors that have an enzymatic active site on the cytoplasmic side of the membrane and initiate enzyme activity by ligand binding at the extracellular surface.
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G-protein-linked receptor
Receptors that bind a different version of a G-protein on the intracellular side when a ligand is bound extracellularly, causing activation of secondary messengers within the cell.
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Homeostasis
The set of conditions under which living things can successfully survive.
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Insulin and Glucagon
Two hormones released from the pancreas that regulate blood glucose levels.
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Negative Feedback Pathway
A pathway that works by turning itself off using the end product of the pathway, inhibiting the process from beginning, thus shutting down the pathway.
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Positive Feedback Pathway
A pathway that involves an end product playing a role, and instead of inhibiting the pathway, it further stimulates it.
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Cell Cycle
The period from the beginning of one division to the beginning of the next in a cell's life cycle.
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Interphase and Mitosis
The two periods that the cell cycle is divided into.
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Interphase
The growing phase of the cell cycle between two cell divisions.
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Three stages of Interphase
Interphase can be divided into three stages: G1, S, G2.
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S phase
The most important phase of interphase where the cell replicates its genetic material.
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Chromosome Duplication
During interphase, every single chromosome in the nucleus is duplicated, and these identical strands of DNA are called sister chromatids.
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Centromere
The structure that holds together the sister chromatids.
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Chromatids
The identical strands of DNA formed during chromosome duplication that are held together by a centromere.
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Full-fledged Chromosomes
Once the chromatids separate, they become full-fledged chromosomes, and each chromosome has its own centromere.
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Mitochondria
Organelles in cells that convert energy from organic molecules into ATP, the most common energy molecule in the cell.
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Cell Cycle Checkpoints
Control mechanisms in eukaryotic cells that regulate cell division by ensuring proper progression through G1, S, G2, and M phases, and activate when damaged DNA is found.
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CDKs and Cyclins
Two families of proteins that regulate cell cycle progression. An inactive CDK binds a regulatory cyclin to induce cell cycle progression, while CDKs and cyclins are kept separate to inhibit cell cycle progression.
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Cancer
Abnormal growth and spread of cells to other parts of the body.
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Oncogenes
Mutated genes that can convert normal cells into cancerous cells.
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Proto-oncogene
Healthy version of a gene that can become an oncogene if mutated.
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Tumor suppressor genes
Genes that produce proteins to prevent the conversion of normal cells into cancer cells.
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CDK/cyclin complexes
Proteins that work with tumor suppressor genes to stop cell growth until damage can be repaired.
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Apoptosis
Programmed cell death triggered by tumor suppressor genes if damage is too severe to be repaired.
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Mitosis
The process of cellular division that occurs in four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
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Interphase
The initial phase of the cell cycle, where the chromosomes decondense and become invisible, and the genetic material is called chromatin again.